smithsonian TREES, LEAVES, FLOWERS & SEEDS A VISUAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PLANT KINGDOM WRITTEN BY DR. SARAH JOSE CONSULTANT DR. CHRIS CLENNETT

CONTENTS FOREWORD 6 DK DELHI THE WORLD 8 Senior Editors Anita Kakar, Bharti Bedi, Rupa Rao OF PLANTS 10 Senior Art Editor Shreya Anand The plant kingdom 12 Editorial team Arpita Dasgupta, Bipasha Roy What is a plant? 14 Art Editors Baibhav Parida, Debjyoti Mukherjee How do roots work? 16 Assistant Art Editors Sifat Fatima, Sanya Jain What is a stem? 18 Living bridges 20 Jacket Designer Tanya Mehrotra How do seeds grow? 22 Jackets Editorial Coordinator Priyanka Sharma Seed shapes 24 Scattering seeds 26 Senior DTP Designer Harish Aggarwal Spreading without seeds 28 DTP Designers Jaypal Chauhan, Ashok Kumar, Vijay Kandwal, The life cycle of a plant 30 What is a leaf ? 32 Mohammad Rizwan, Vikram Singh, Rakesh Kumar Simple leaves 34 Senior Picture Researcher Sumedha Chopra Compound leaves 36 Picture Researchers Aditya Katyal, Vishal Ghavri Plants with patterns 38 Picture Research Manager Taiyaba Khatoon Symmetrical swirls 40 Self-defense 42 Managing Jackets Editor Saloni Singh Plants and nitrogen Pre-production Manager Balwant Singh NONFLOWERING 44 Production Manager Pankaj Sharma PLANTS Managing Editor Kingshuk Ghoshal 46 Managing Art Editor Govind Mittal Nonflowering plants 48 Ancient plants 50 DK LONDON What is a fern? 52 Senior Editor Ashwin Khurana Fern fronds 54 Senior Art Editor Rachael Grady Dinosaur diet 56 US Editor Jennette ElNaggar What is a conifer cone? 58 US Executive Editor Lori Cates Hand Pines and needles 60 Jacket Designer Surabhi Wadhwa-Gandhi Conifer cones Jacket Editor Emma Dawson Jacket Design Development Manager Sophia MTT Producer, Pre-production Andy Hilliard Senior Producers Jude Crozier, Mary Slater Managing Editor Francesca Baines Managing Art Editor Philip Letsu Publisher Andrew Macintyre Art Director Karen Self Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf First American Edition, 2019 Published in the United States by DK Publishing 1450 Broadway, Suite 801, New York, NY 10018 Copyright © 2019 Dorling Kindersley Limited DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC 19 20 21 22 23 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 001–310149–Sept/2019 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-1-4654-8242-6 DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 1450 Broadway, Suite 801, New York, NY 10018 [email protected] Printed and bound in China A WORLD OF IDEAS: SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW www.dk.com Established in 1846, the Smithsonian—the world’s largest museum and research complex—includes 19 museums and galleries and the National Zoological Park. The Smithsonian is a renowned research center, dedicated to public education, national service, and scholarship in the arts, sciences, and natural history. Smithsonian Gardens, an accredited museum and Public Garden, engages people with plants and gardens, informs on the roles both play in our cultural and natural worlds, and inspires appreciation and stewardship of living and archival collections and horticultural artifacts.

FLOWERING Going underground 136 PLANTS Soft fruits 138 62 Volcanic vineyard 140 What is a flower? Flower forms 64 Stone fruits 142 Pollinators 66 Juicy fruits 144 Looks familiar Tropical fruits 146 River of blossom 68 Magnificent melons 148 A garden of roses 70 A bit nutty 150 Crazy for daisies 72 Eat your greens! 152 Ingenious orchids 74 Peas and beans 154 Blossoms and bulbs 76 All squashed up! 156 What’s that smell? 78 Pumpkin boat race 158 Living in water 80 Bulbs, stems, and stalks 160 Along the river 82 Flooded forest 84 What is a cactus? 86 Cool cacti 88 Desert survivors 90 LIVING WITH 162 Desert bloom 92 PLANTS Meat-eating plants Poisonous plants 94 Parasitic plants 96 Plants and people Mountain life 98 The spices of life 164 Creepers and climbers 166 What is a tree? 100 Helpful herbs 168 Types of trees 102 Plant products 170 Barking up the tree 104 Shrinking forest 172 Standing tall 106 Natural beauty 174 Blossom time 108 Plants of the world 176 Living on air 110 Plant science 178 Strangler fig 112 Space garden 180 The forest floor 114 Bonsai 116 What is a grass? 118 Types of grasses 120 Grasses and grains 122 Rice terraces 124 GLOSSARY 182 Fruit or vegetable? 126 PLANT INDEX 184 128 INDEX 188 130 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 192 132 134

Austrian pine Forget -me-not Star fruit FOREWORD Plants are essential for life. They make our This amalgamation of disciplines is what first planet’s atmosphere breathable, their decaying attracted me to the profession and has held my bodies create the soil under our feet, and they interest for more than 40 years. This volume transform light energy into consumable nutrients brought me back to Hort Studies 101, with each that keep us alive. They also inspire artists; think chapter examining different plants, their parts, of Georgia O’Keeffe’s Poppies, Claude Monet’s and how they interact with the world around Water Lilies, and Vincent van Gogh’s Sunflowers. them. Thankfully, the photographs used reveal details—ranging from tangled roots to distinctive Trees, Leaves, Flowers & Seeds combines the seed and flower shapes—that surpass the old art and science of plants, revealing complex transparency sheets used by my professors. botanical details in beautiful photographs and simple graphics. While previewing this book, Similar to Trees, Leaves, Flowers & Seeds, I wondered where it was when I was a child Smithsonian Gardens combines art and science interested in learning more about plants. in its many diverse garden and landscape exhibits. While their beauty is often what initially It reminded me why I began my career in attracts visitors, the science they embody horticulture. At its most basic level, horticulture showcases our living collections and provides is the science and art of growing plants. rnflower ropical pitcher p il T lant Thai bas Co

Ech everia Angel wings Dwarf pomegranate depths of engagement with our audiences. Throughout this book, you will find scale boxes that Our gardens are delightful examples of show the sizes of plants compared to either a child, performative art. They change every season, a school bus, or a human hand. indeed every day, of their existence. Smithsonian Gardens’ staff horticulturists and gardeners are Child = 4 3⁄4 ft extraordinarily knowledgeable when it comes to (1.45 m) tall plant science, yet so much of their work evolves into genuine artistry thanks to their natural skill School bus = 36 ft in combining living collections. (11 m) wide Perhaps the fascinating information and Hand = 6 in engaging photographs in Trees, Leaves, Flowers (16 cm) long & Seeds will launch an inquisitive child’s journey into the mesmerizing world of plants. Cynthia Brown Smithsonian Gardens Education and Collections Manager Dragon fruit Holly Radicchio

THE WORLD OF PLANTS

The world of plants Nonflowering plants These are the oldest plants and include ferns and mosses, which reproduce using spores. Conifers, which produce naked (not enclosed) seeds, also belong to this group. Liverworts Mosses Hornworts Lycopods ommon liverwort mooth hornwort Stif clubmoss S Grasses C Star moss Little bluestem The plant Daisies kingdom Figaro dahlia There are around 400,000 different types of plants, and botanists—scientists specializing in plants— discover new ones all the time. Hundreds of millions of years ago, the first plants were small and did not flower. Over time, the process of evolution has created a fantastic range of plants, from simple ferns to stunning cherry blossoms and spiky cacti. To bring order to this incredible variety, botanists divide up plants into nonflowering and flowering plants. Within these categories, there are many 10 species, and some of them are shown here.

PLANT KINGDOM Flowering plants Angiosperms, or flowering plants, make up more than 90 percent of all plants. They produce seeds that are protected by a hard casing. Angiosperms The plant kingdomFernsGymnosperms Lo S oft tree fern dgepole pine Lupine Monocots Dicots Monocots have just one seed leaf, which grows into a new plant. They often have Dicots have two seed leaves, which appear together when a new plant starts to grow. long, narrow leaves. Grasses, orchids, and palms are examples of monocots. They mostly have broad leaves. Dicots include daisies, roses, cacti, and legumes. Orchids Palms Vanda Coconut palm Legumes Roses Cacti Chinese rose Old man of the Andes Snow pea 11

The world of plants What is Flower ❯ This colorful part of the plant a plant? contains the male and female cells that Plants come in all shapes and sizes—from are responsible for producing seeds. tiny green mosses to giant trees—but almost all plants contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. This chemical harnesses the energy of sunlight to make the food (a sugar called glucose) that the plant needs to grow. As part of this process, called photosynthesis, plants take carbon dioxide gas from the air and turn it into food, while releasing oxygen, which all animals need to breathe. Tendril ❯ This plant has a special stem, called a tendril, which wraps around nearby objects, helping support the plant. Not a plant Lichens Corals Algae Fungi A lichen is made up of algae Corals are tiny, underwater animals Many algae are green, like Unlike plants, fungi get their and fungi living together. The with hard skeletons. To grow, they plants, but do not have true food from the soil, or from algae help make food, while depend on algae in their tissues to roots, stems, and leaves. Algae other plants and animals on the fungi provide shade. make energy from sunlight. can live only in water. which they grow. 12

Stem ❯ The stem supports Leaf ❯ This is the power the plant. It can be short or station of a plant. Leaves use tall, woody or nonwoody. sunlight to make the energy the plant needs to grow. Cucumber plant Fruit ❯ A fruit contains the plant’s seeds, protecting them from harm. Colorful fruits attract animals to eat them and then spread the seeds in their droppings. Flowering plant Root ❯ Plants use their roots This cucumber plant uses flowers to to anchor themselves to the reproduce and make seeds for new ground. Roots also draw water plants. However, not all plants have and nutrients from the soil to flowers—simple plants, such as mosses keep the plant alive. and conifers, reproduce in other ways. It is sometimes difficult to tell what is a plant and what is not—seaweed and fungi, for example, are not plants.

How do Leaf ❯ A plant’s leaves use the energy roots work? from sunlight to make sugar. Water is drawn up through the roots and Most plants have roots, which anchor sugary sap moves down from the the plant in the ground. Roots soak up leaves, powering the plant’s growth. vital water from the soil, along with the dissolved minerals that the plant uses to Burdock grow. Grasses have tufts of fibrous roots, root but most other plants grow at least one taproot, which then sprouts smaller lateral (side) roots that spread outward. Taproot ❯ As a seed starts to grow, one or more strong roots push down into the soil. This is the plant’s taproot, and it grows only at its tip, forcing soil particles aside with a tough root cap as it grows deeper into the ground.

Lateral root ❯ These spindly roots branch out from the main taproots to form a complex, tangled network of roots. Root hair ❯ Tiny root hairs sprout from just above the growing tip of each root. They grow between soil particles and absorb the water and minerals that the plant needs to grow. Root hairs grow from the root’s skin cells (seen here in pink). Types of roots Aerial Some plants, typically in tropical forests, Buttress Many tropical rain forest trees are Pneumatophore Rooted in waterlogged, Stilt Mangroves growing on muddy tidal grow in the treetops with roots that cling to supported by roots that spread out partly airless mud, these mangrove trees grow in seashores are swept by waves at high tide. above the ground. This is because most swampy, subtropical brackish (salty) water. Many mangrove trees have stiltlike roots the tree bark for support. The American pearl rain forest soil is not very deep and these Some have roots that grow upwards into that arch down from their trunks to help laceleaf grows roots that hang in the moist air surface roots help anchor the tree. the air to gather oxygen. support them in the moving water. to absorb essential water.

What is a stem? A stem is like a plant’s backbone, holding it up and connecting its roots, leaves, flowers, and fruits. It raises the leaves toward the sunlight so they can make food, which is then transported by the stem to the rest of the plant. It also carries water and nutrients up from the roots. There are many different types of stems, from soft, green stems to hard tree trunks. Creeper stem ❯ Young English ivy stems are soft and flexible, with tiny anchoring roots to help it climb. As the plant grows, the stems grow thicker and harder, sending out side shoots to explore new spaces. Sugarcane Tough stem ❯ This tall grass supports English ivy itself with a tough stem. Special tissues running down the stem transport the sugar made in its leaves to other parts of the plant. Sugarcane stems hold a lot of sugar, which can be harvested and dried to produce the sugar that we eat.

Woody stem ❯ Trunks and branches are woody stems, Types of stems which are stiff and strong to provide support for tall There are many types of stem. Woody stems trees. The live tissue (cambium) is protected by an outer contain two layers of tissue—one transports covering of dead bark. These stems expand by producing water, and the other food in the form of sugar. In new layers of woody tissue each year—the growth rings nonwoody stems, these tissues are combined into tubes. Woody stems are protected by thickened that can be seen in cut tree trunks. bark, while nonwoody stems are covered by a thin, protective tissue layer. Soft stem ❯ The nonwoody Tissue stems of many smaller plants transporting are soft and green. They support the plant, while transporting water water and nutrients. Tissue transporting sugar Corhkaszcerel w Soft, Nonwoody stem spongy layer Thin outer layer Tissue Woody stem transporting sugar Tissue transporting water Core of woody stem Tough, strong bark Sun rose Sweet sap suckers Small bugs called aphids puncture stems to suck out the sweet, nutrient- rich liquid transported inside it. These insects don’t usually kill the plant but can often slow down its growth and carry diseases that might harm it.

LIVING BRIDGES The state of Meghalaya in northeast India is one of the wettest regions in the world, with almost 39 ft (12 m) of rainfall each year. The rains flood the rivers, making travel difficult, but the local Khasi Tribe came up with a clever way to stay connected with other villages. Using the roots of the rubber fig tree, they built strong, living bridges that can hold up to 50 people at once.

This type of bridge is made by twisting the aerial roots 15–20 years to build a living bridge, which can grow to more (roots that grow above ground) of rubber fig trees around than 164 ft (50 m) in length. The strongest living bridges are temporary bridges made of bamboo or tree trunks, which more than 100 years old, with some believed to be more then rot away over time. Once the tree roots reach the than 500 years old. This double-decker bridge in Cherrapunji other side of the river, they are planted into the ground is more than 180 years old, and the local people are now so they can grow thicker and stronger. It can take about adding a third level to it to attract more tourists.

The world of plants How do The right conditions seeds grow? Seeds need ideal conditions—warmth, air, and water—to germinate. Some need Plants are rooted to the spot, so to reproduce and darkness to sense they are properly spread, flowering plants make seeds from which buried. Others need light to know they new plants grow. A seed contains a tiny young are not buried too deep. plant called an embryo, which lies dormant (inactive) until it senses the perfect conditions Young shoot ❯ Next, a young to germinate and grow into a new plant. shoot emerges from the seed, growing upward until it breaks out of the soil. It quickly begins to make food using sunlight. Germination ❯ A seed lies First root ❯ Most seeds begin dormant until it detects germination by sending a root moisture and warmth. It then downward into the soil. The root absorbs water from the soil, absorbs water and nutrients and the seed springs to life, in a from the soil and passes them process known as germination. on to the developing shoot.

Inside a seed A seed is a perfectly packaged baby plant, called an embryo, protected by a hard outer coat. The embryo has a root and a shoot, and the first true leaves. It also has a food store for the embryo in “seed leaves.” Seed leaves ❯ The first leaf, A hard seed coat The first true leaves protects the embryo will grow from this or pair of leaves, in a flowering growing shoot point. plant often looks very different from damage. to the true leaves the seedling will grow later. This is because The root of the the seed leaves were part of the embryo grows first. embryo that lived inside the seed. Seed leaves take up much of the space inside the seed. Inside a seed One leaf or two? The seed case There are two main types of flowering Two broad seed still clings to plants—monocots and dicots—named leaves grow out the young plant for the number of seed leaves they of a dicot seed. as it emerges have. Monocot seeds contain one seed from the ground. leaf, while dicot seeds have two. New leaves will A single seed leaf form at the top emerges from the tip of the shoot. of the stem. Corn seed Germinating Bean Germinating (monocot) monocot seed (dicot) dicot seed The root has fine Early germination hairs to help it absorb even more water. Sometimes seeds germinate before they have parted from their parent plant. This early germination may take the form of shoots growing on the outside of a fruit, as on this strawberry. In other fruits, shoots may even burst through the fruit wall from the seeds held inside. Germinating seed

Seed shapes Tiny, kidney-shaped Magnified view Almost all the grain is Hundreds of seeds are less than filled with starchy tissue. seedlike fruits 1 mm in length. are produced per flower head. This curved, bumpy Sunflower Bright red fruit is filled by a wings grow single, curved seed. up to 4 in (10 cm) long. Pot Poppy Barley marigold fegd Coriander Small, dry fruits Haaiprity-olnea are used as a spice. Odd-shaped Beet Love in Black seeds have seeds are a puff a heart-shaped white patch. about 2–3 mm Yellow kernels Wide, thin wings across. are rich in vitamins. Wrinkled, oval help this seed glide for seeds are known Coffee as stones or pits. hundreds of feet. Peach Corn Two coffee seeds, or Avocado beans, are produced in each red fruit of the coffee plant. A juicy, red Kiaat coat surrounds This round seed grows A circular, papery each seed. up to 2½ in (6.5 cm) long. wing surrounds this spiky seed pod. Pomegranate A seed is a small package that protects a The giant coco de mer seed is able to hold young plant and contains all the nutrients a lot of nutrients so that the new plant has the plant will need to germinate. Although enough energy to grow out of its mother’s all seeds do the same job, they come in a shadow. The poppy has another survival wide range of shapes and sizes, to help strategy—rather than one big seed, it produces each one survive in its particular tens of thousands of tiny seeds to maximize environment and spread without being its chances. The spiky coats of the horse 22 eaten by hungry animals. chestnut seed and the kiaat seed pod

Coco de mer These massive seeds are the largest and heaviest in the world, weighing up to 39 ½ lb (18 kg) each. These glossy seeds are protected by a spiky shell. Horse chestnut Flat, circular seeds are a good source of protein. Lentils Javan cucumber deter hungry animals, while other seeds, such as those of the avocado and peach, are too hard for most plant eaters to munch. Sometimes, what we think of as seeds are, in fact, fruits with seeds inside, including those of the sunflower, coriander, and pot marigold.

The world of plants Blackberry Dandelion Juicy berries are eaten by harvest mice, which pass the seeds in their poo. Scattering seeds When shaken, lotus seeds fall from the dried seed pod and into the lake or pond in which the plant grows. Lotus Spiky burdock seeds can grow up to 1 in (3 cm) across. Burdock Between 90 and 110 feathery bristles radiate outward to form a parachute on every seed. Plants are anchored by roots and can’t move from one place to another. If they dropped their seeds where they stood, the new plants would be in competition for nutrients and sunlight. So plants have developed many ways to make sure their seeds scatter far and wide to take advantage of new places in which to grow. They use exploding seed pods, animals, the wind, or even water to spread their seeds.

Single-winged Up to 200 seeds seeds spin like can be produced helicopter rotors. by a single flower. Norway maple Alder Coconut fruits When the flower head thiMstillek are salt-proof and dries out, it releases seeds float on seawater. with silvery parachutes. Woody scales of the female catkin (flower spike) open up to release seeds. Cuipo seeds have five wings, which make them spin as they fall. Cuipo plants sprout as soon as their seeds land on the forest floor. Coconut Acorns are essential Cu ipo fall food for many animals, from squirrels and woodpeckers to deer, pigs, and bears. Acorn Wind and water carry seeds farthest. Dandelion When animals eat fruit, the undigested seeds 25 and milk thistle seeds have parachutes that inside the fruit pass through their droppings. carry them on the breeze, while maple and Burdock seeds are covered in hooks that get cuipo seeds catch the wind as they fall from caught in animal fur and transported. Squirrels the tree canopy. Amazingly, coconut seeds can bury hundreds of acorns each fall to eat in travel hundreds of miles on ocean currents. winter. The ones they forget about germinate Animals are also important seed spreaders. into new oak trees.

Spreading without seeds Tiny plantlets with roots form along the fleshy leaves. The world of plants Iris Mint Underground Spreading underground stems can send out stems are partially visible new shoots around through a thin layer of soil. the mother plant. Plantlet Stems grow from the base of the old tree. Mother of thousa Beech nds Each leaf can produce dozens of tiny plantlets. Some plants have evolved ways to Plants such as mint, strawberry, and bamboo spread quickly over an area without send out long stems, either just below or on top seeds. To do this, they make perfect of the soil, which can put down roots and grow copies of themselves using modified into whole new plants. The creeping underground stems, forming underground storage stems, or rhizomes, of some irises also send up organs, or growing baby plants on the new plants as they spread. Other plants, such as 26 margins of their leaves. sweet potatoes, produce underground storage

Spider p These stems grow Parent plant sends roots and then out horizontal stems along the soil. leaves to become independent plants. New bamboo shoots can grow up to 35 in (90 cm) in a day. Plantlets grow BambooStrawberry on dangling stems.lant STEM RUNNERS The strawberry plant produces long stems called runners that run along or just under the soil. New strawberry plants grow at the knots, or nodes, on the runners, quickly colonizing an area with good soil. Runners lay down roots before new plants can grow. New shoots Parent plant New plant grow from marks called “eyes.” Fleshy root tubers are popular Sweet potato starchy foods. Underground stems spread quickly, sending up new shoots. organs called tubers. If harsh weather are touching the ground. The kills off their leaves, new plants can mother of thousands plant takes regrow from the starchy tuber, using this even further, producing tiny it for food. Spider plants grow new plantlets, complete with roots, leaves at the tips of their hanging along the edges of its leaves. These flower stems, which quickly grow eventually drop off the mother roots when they detect that they plant and grow around its base.

The world of plants The life 8 The fruit cycle of develops and a plant Seeds lie dormant ripens. New seeds Flowering plants may have a (inactive) waiting life span of just months, or many 1 are dispersed by the years. A poppy will germinate, flower, set seed, and die within for the right conditions wind, and the cycle a year and is known as an annual plant. Other flowering plants live to germinate. starts again. for several years, building up the food reserves they need and storing 2 Germination begins it. These are called perennial plants. when there is enough The harsher the climate, the longer it can take for a plant to complete water, warmth, and light for its life cycle. the seeds to sprout their first root and then a shoot. Late bloomer 3 Seedlings begin to produce leaves to gather High in the cold Andes Mountains of South America, light and more roots to absorb the queen of the Andes plant grows very slowly. It takes over water from the soil to help 80 years to bloom and grows a spike nearly 30 ft (10 m) tall, them grow. with up to 30,000 flowers, dwarfing the surrounding 4 Flower buds develop. In plants plants. After shedding that flower every year (annuals) millions of seeds, it dies. such as poppies, the bud can form 28 within a few weeks of germination.

Po ppy 7 As soon as a flower is pollinated, it sheds its petals. Seeds form inside the fruit. 5 Protected within the green sepals 6 Once the petals open (leaf-shaped, and sometimes hairy, up, insects, such as structures at the base of a flower), the bud grows colorful petals. When the flower is bees, are attracted to the ready to open, the petals burst out. sweet nectar inside and pollinate the flower. 29

What is Small netted veins ❯ Networks of a leaf? tiny veins connect the green tissues Leaves are usually flat, green structures that of the leaf to the main vein inside grow from plant stems. Although they come the midrib and the stem beyond. in many shapes and sizes, almost all of them The world of plants capture sunlight and produce food for the plant. Leaves get their green color from a pigment called chlorophyll that uses sunlight to produce food from the plant in a process called photosynthesis. Stomata ❯ Tiny pores on the underside of the leaf, called stomata, open during the day to take in carbon dioxide but close at night to avoid losing too much water. ple leaf Underside of ap Blade ❯ The flat part of the leaf is Petiole ❯ This is the stiff stalk connecting called the leaf blade. It is the green the leaf to the plant stem. In some plants, tissue that absorbs sunlight to make these stalks can help leaves move and the sugar the plant needs to grow. follow the sun in order to absorb more light. 30

Midrib ❯ Running along the center of the Photosynthesis leaf, this thickened area contains the central Plants make their own food in a process called vein. It also provides support to the leaf to photosynthesis. Their leaves contain a light- prevent it from bending and breaking. harvesting pigment called chlorophyll. This green chemical uses the sun’s energy to convert carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil into food (in the form of sugars) and oxygen. Sunlight provides the energy needed for photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide Oxygen is enters the leaf. released as a by-product. Apple leaf Sugar is produced in green leaf tissues. Vein ❯ Plant veins have two types of tubes Water and minerals are running through them. One type, called absorbed through the xylem, carries water from the roots to the roots and transported shoots. The other type, known as phloem, up the stem. transports sugars around the plant. Fall leaves As fall approaches, the green pigment chlorophyll is replaced at a slower rate than it is used up. The reduced chlorophyll levels mean other leaf pigments, including orange-yellow ones, become more obvious. At the same time, plants start producing red-purple pigments. These changes result in the beautiful fall displays of leaf colors. Maple leaves in fall

The world of plants Simple leaves Young leaves have five Dandelion sharp points, while older Spear- leaves are rounder. These jagged Amazonian water lily shaped leaves contain Einvgylish a bitter milky sap called latex. Sugar maple leaves turn red before falling in autumn. Divided Palm-shaped Circular Leaves develop large Sugar maple holes as the plant ages, and can grow up to 35 in (90 cm) long. Swiss-c heese plant Veins grow from Oval-shaped the stalk at the center of the leaf. Spiky edges protect the leaves from grazing animals. Heart-shaped Nasturtium Circular Holly A leaf typically consists of a flat surface Simple leaves come in many shapes and sizes, called a blade, which carries a network of and those best suited to their habitat are the most veins. These veins support the leaves and likely to thrive. In wet rain forest conditions plants transport the water and minerals to them have big leaves, while plants in drier locations from the rest of the plant. A simple leaf usually have small leaves. Some plants, such as 32 has a single, undivided blade. English ivy and ginkgo, change their leaf shape

Ginkgo Fan-shaped Arrow- shaped Veins branch out like a fan instead of forming a network. These giant leaves grow up to 9 ft (3 m) across. Engli sh oak Divided English oak leaves, Eucalyptus which can grow up to 4 in (10 cm) long, turn brown and fall off in the autumn. Jagged edges are more common in leaves from colder countries. Waxy leaves repel water, so rainwater flows quickly off this rain forest plant. h ear Silver birc ElephantT’shin, bladelike leaves are common Linear This leaf contains a in grass plants. Triangular toxic oil to avoid being eaten by predators. Lance-shaped Wheat as they grow and get more access to sunlight. as possible. Although the reasons 33 The Swiss-cheese plant and elephant’s ear remain unclear, scientists believe the grow in rain forests so have waxy, pointy leaves jagged leaf edges of sugar maple and to help rainwater run off. Another rain forest plant, silver birch may help keep them slightly the Amazonian water lily, has giant leaves that warmer than smooth edges would, allowing spread across lakes to capture as much sunlight the plants to grow faster in cool spring weather.

Compound leaves Sensitive plant Leaflets fold shut in about three seconds if touched. The world of plants TamarindFeathery leaves turn a golden yellow in the fall. Divided Stinking toe twice Two Shiny green leaflets leaflets look like a cow’s toes, but this plant gets its name from its stinky fruit. Lupine Arranged like a closed fan when young; Rounded lupine the lupine’s leaves Oval leaflets leaves have up fold up at to 17 leaflets. unfold as night and open it grows. Divided into an during the day. Multiple leaflets even number of leaflets A compound leaf is one that is divided into A compound leaf has separate leaflets with two or more parts called leaflets. These less individual surface area than a simple leaf. leaflets grow either along the stalk like In a dry region, this helps the plant to reduce a feather or from a single point like a fan. the amount of water lost through evaporation. Compound leaves come in a wide range Compound leaves, like that of the lupine, flutter 34 of shapes and sizes. less in windy conditions than simple leaves,

Honey locust Veins from the main leaf stalk run through each leaflet. Divided into an odd number of leaflets Four heart-shaped leaflets grow from a single stalk. Five leaflets Horse chestnut Four-leaved Four pink sorrel leaflets Flat leaf stalk looks like a second leaf below the true leaf. Silve r fern Silvery undersides Leaf stalk (bottom) of the leaves give this looks like true leaf fern its name. Pomelo LONGEST LEAF A whitish, V-shaped Raffia palm 82 ft (25 m) long band is typical in leaves grow Raffia palm leaf a whopping white clover leaflets. 82 ft (25 m) long—more than twice as long as a school bus. Divided twice White clover Three leaflets making them less likely to break off. Having Some compound leaves grow very quickly, 35 compound leaves can also help the plants avoid which helps trees, such as the honey locust, being eaten. Leaflets of the sensitive plant harness as much sunlight as possible before losing quickly fold up if touched by hungry animals, their leaves in the fall. The pomelo has a rare type while tamarind leaflets close up at night to of compound leaf with a flat stalk that looks like appear smaller and less tasty to plant eaters. a second leaf, which also helps capture sunlight.

The world of plants Plants with patterns The lighter patches cannot make energy from sunlight, slowing the growth of this plant. These light pink flowers have deeper blotches of color on the upper two petals. Geranium Areas over the veins Butterfly agave do not make the red coloring, or pigment, White marks look so they look white. like damage done by a leaf-mining insect. Angel wings White spots mimic water damage to protect the leaf against being eaten. The color-breaking stripes are caused by a viral infection. o lily p Flaming Tuli Multicolored plants—also known as Virginia waterleaf variegated plants—are popular with gardeners but are rare in nature. It’s the Gardeners have cultivated plants with green parts of the leaves that trap sunlight patterned leaves and flowers because to harvest its energy, so white or yellow they look beautiful. The outlined leaves 36 patches slow plant growth down. of the butterfly agave and holly and the attractive flowers of geranium, flamingo lily, and dahlia are very rare

onia Beg White patches do Rose not have the ability The silvery patches can to make color. produce food, too, helping Prayer pl ant this plant grow. Begonias These spiky leaves produce seeds are very hardy. The so small they holly plant can grow up look like to 50 ft (15 m) in height. dust. Holly Prayer plant leaves come in many patterns, from mosaic to striped. Purple-blue flowers are marked with white spots of different sizes and resemble a starry night sky. Dahlia Only the tips of Petunia this flower make the pink pigment. in wild plants. In the 17th century, striped Virginia waterleaf are among the few 37 tulip flowers were very fashionable in the plants that have naturally patterned leaves. Netherlands and sold for huge amounts of Both have white spots on their leaves, money. It was later found that the delicate which make them appear damaged and markings on the tulips were actually the less appetizing. This greatly reduces the result of a viral infection. Angel wings and chance of insects eating their leaves.

SYMMETRICAL SWIRLS Twirl a sunflower around in your fingers and the pattern at the center of the flower head looks the same from every side. This is because the sunflower head is radially symmetrical—the florets form two sets of spirals starting at the same point somewhere in the center of the flower, before turning in opposite directions, one clockwise and the other counterclockwise.

Radial symmetry appears throughout the plant world, from in nature is because this is the best way to pack the most daisies to pine cones. The spirals follow a pattern known as flowers, leaves, or seeds into a tight space. A sunflower head the Fibonacci sequence, named after the Italian mathematician is made up of many tiny florets—the dark rods in the picture who discovered it. In this sequence, each number is the sum are opened florets, while those in the center are unopened of the previous two. The pattern starts 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, ones. Each new floret grows at an angle to the previous one, and so on. The reason why Fibonacci numbers are common leaving no gaps and maximizing its exposure to pollinators.

The world of plants Self- Animals can run from their predators, but defense plants have no way of escaping hungry plant eaters. Instead, they have developed Needlelike crystals some clever ways of making themselves line the blue agave’s look and taste as unappealing or dangerous as possible, encouraging animals to look leaves, making them an elsewhere for a meal. Plant defenses range unpleasant mouthful. from spiky thorns to toxic chemicals. Spiky leaf edges protect these succulent leaves. Camel Silver-gray crystals thorn Tea leaves contain tannin, Blue agave a bitter-tasting chemical that deters animals from eating them. Fully developed thorns may grow up to 2 1⁄4 in (6 cm) long. Spines on the stem Tea protect the plant from hungry animals. These woolly leaves are difficult for insects to munch. These swollen parts provide hollow homes for ants that help ward off predators, protecting the plant. 40 Ant fern Thistle Lamb’s ear

To deter predators, some plants, including blue agave, produce nasty-tasting or irritating the camel thorn, produce sharp branches chemicals to put off any animal that takes a called thorns, while others, such as gorse, bite. The spots on passion flower leaves are make sharp leaves known as spines. a clever defense called mimicry—the Prickles are extensions of the stems of plant’s leaves pretend to be infested plants such as roses. Another plant defense by butterfly eggs, which deters strategy is the use of chemicals. Plants, real butterflies from looking such as tea, common milkweed, and for a “healthy” leaf. Thorns grow up Passion flower to 3 in (7 cm) long. The gummy Leaf spots resemble white sap of this yellow butterfly eggs. flowering plant is Common toxic to many Whistling Ants live inside Small milkweed plant-eating thorn acacia these swollen thorns, mammals. protecting the plant birds nest The stiff spines that cover from herbivores. in spiky the plant can be up to gorse bushes to 2½ in (6.5 cm) long. Gorse protect themselves from predators. Stems and leaves Buds contain yellow are covered in tiny flowers with a stinging hairs. coconut scent. Stinngeitntlge Rose Needlelike Downward- hairs can inject pointing prickles a painful mix grow on the of chemicals. stems of roses to deter predators from climbing up. Stinging hairs 41

The world of plants Plants and nitrogen Plants use the energy of sunlight to turn carbon dioxide and water into the sugars they need to help them grow. To do this, they also need proteins that contain nitrogen. Although this vital gas makes up two-thirds of the air we breathe, plants cannot absorb nitrogen from the air. Instead, they rely on tiny organisms in the soil to make nitrates both from the nitrogen in the air and from the decaying remains of living things. Nitrogen cycle 1 Nitrogen gas enters the soil from the air. Lightning can All plants, animals, and other living things contain nitrogen. When they die, their remains are broken also change nitrogen gas into nitrates. down by fungi and bacteria. This eventually forms nitrates, which plants can use to make proteins that can be eaten by animals. Nitrogen is recycled continuously between the air, soil, and living things in this way—a process called the nitrogen cycle. 2 Some bacteria in the soil 3 Plants absorb nitrates can change nitrogen gas into dissolved in the water that ammonia, which can be turned their roots soak up from the soil. They use the nitrates to make the into nitrates. Similar bacteria, proteins essential for growth. called nitrogen-fixing bacteria, live Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the roots of plants such as peas.

Nitrogen deficiency Plants and nitrogen If a plant is short of nitrogen, it cannot make enough protein and does not grow properly. It also cannot make enough of the chlorophyll that makes its leaves green, and the edges of its leaves turn pale or even yellow. Nitrogen-deficient grape leaf 4 Animals, such as cows, eat plants. They digest the plant proteins to make the animal proteins their bodies need. 5 Animal waste, such as dung and urine, returns nitrogen-containing compounds that can be turned into nitrates to the soil. 7 Some kinds of bacteria in the soil turn nitrates back into nitrogen gas, which is 6 Some fungi and released into the air. bacteria living in the soil feed on animal waste, or on the decaying remains of dead animals and plants. They break down nitrogen-containing compounds to release Decomposing fungi nitrates into the soil.

NONFLOWERING PLANTS

Nonflowering plants Nonflowering plants The most ancient land plants on Earth are the nonflowering plants that evolved hundreds of millions of years ago. The earliest were simple plants such as liverworts, mosses, and hornworts, which grow in damp places to avoid drying out. Ferns are more complex but still have to live in moist environments. Instead of producing seeds, almost all nonflowering plants reproduce using tiny spores, which are carried away by wind or water. Only the gymnosperms, a group of nonflowering plants that includes conifers, produce seed-bearing cones instead. Moss life cycle Food factory ❯ The green A moss’s spore capsule releases spores into the wind. leaflike part of this moss, When they land, they grow into leafy shoots with tiny sex called the gametophyte, organs. When it rains, male sperm cells are able to reach produces food using energy eggs and fertilize them. Each fertilized egg grows a new from sunlight. It does not shoot, and the cycle continues. contain veins to transport water and nutrients, but its Spore capsule surface is so thin that these simply soak through. Male Female 1. Scattering spores 2. Sex organs develop Raindrops allow male sperm cells to swim over to the eggs. Spore-producing shoot 4. Spore capsule grows 3. Fertilization

Capsule ❯ A spore-producing capsule forms at Nonflowering plants the tip of each threadlike sporophyte. When the Liverwort spores are mature, the lid of the capsule breaks The first land off to reveal an opening, through which the plants were the tiny spores are released. Every capsule contains liverworts, which hundreds of thousands of tiny spores, which appeared around are carried off on the wind. 470 million years ago. Around 9,000 liverwort Brown sporophytes do not species exist today. make their own food, relying on the green gametophyte instead. Moss Mosses grow in fluffy Capillary thread moss clumps, often in shady areas. Although they may look similar, 12,000 different types of mosses exist around the world. Hornwort These humidity- loving plants, which are named for their horn-shaped sporophytes, can even grow under water. Club moss The spore-producing brown spikes of club mosses are held on mosslike stems, but unlike mosses, the green parts are the sporophytes. Horsetails Horsetails have thin, hairlike leaves that run up their stems like a bottlebrush, and produce spores in conelike structures at the stem tip. Sporophyte ❯ The spore- producing, columnlike structure rising from the green body of the moss is a sporophyte. It starts to grow when a female egg cell is fertilized by a male sperm cell. 47

Ancient The first animals lived in a world filled with plants plants, but this vegetation looked different to what we see around us today. The earliest dinosaurs would not have seen flowers, and the plant eaters would have chewed mosses and horsetails instead of grasses. Many of these ancient plants have disappeared, but some continue to thrive today. Nonflowering plants woGolidttemroisnsgCommon tamarisk mossStar-shaped shootsSpore-producing range from a yellow-green stems grow upright, to a reddish brown color. allowing the spores to fly over a greater distance. These feathery shoots look like tiny fern fronds. Forest star moss Twisted moss Mosses absorb This tiny, leafy water and nutrients liverwort grows from rain and dust. on damp soil. Marsh clubmoss Glossy shoots Common give this plant kettlewort its name.

The first land plants appeared around the same complex, leaflike shoots, like those of the Ancient plants time as the first insects. The earliest liverworts, modern tamarisk moss and the glittering relatives of the common kettlewort and wood moss. Without veins to carry water common liverwort, evolved about 470 million and nutrients from the soil to the shoots, these years ago. They did not have roots, stems, or plants remain small. However, club mosses and flowers but lived in damp places and simply horsetails, such as the marsh clubmoss, fir absorbed water through their surface. Later came clubmoss, and meadow horsetail, have veins hornworts and mosses, many of which had more running up their stems and so grow taller. Spongelike moss HEALING MOSS can store huge Sphagnum moss is absorbent and very acidic, amounts of water. so it prevents the growth of bacteria and fungi. During World War I (1914–1918), bandages um were sometimes wrapped around sphagnum Common haircap Sphagn moss and used as dressings for soldiers. This This unusually tall stopped their wounds from becoming infected Scientists moss can grow up and helped them heal faster. to 15 3⁄4 in (40 cm). study the Dressing made of sphagnum moss common liverwort to learn how Sphagnum bandage roll plants These tiny upright evolved. stems look like little conifers. The young plants Common growing inside these liverwort cups are splashed Each capsule out by raindrops. produces thousands hMoresaedtoaw of tiny spores. Cuplike structure Velvmetofsesat Spore-producing cones grow at the tips of fertile stems. her- Fir clubmoss il

Frond ❯ Fern leaves are called fronds. Male fern Nonflowering plants These are usually divided into smaller sections, which increases the leaf ’s surface area so it can capture more sunlight. Fronds not only carry out photosynthesis, using the energy from sunlight to make food for the fern, but they are also important for reproduction. Pinna ❯ Each small segment Fiddlehead ❯ New of a fern frond growing fronds develop as from the central stalk, or tightly curled spirals rachis, is called a pinna. called fiddleheads, which unfurl as the leaf grows. What is a fern? Root ❯ The roots of ferns Ferns are nonflowering plants that are very similar to those of do not produce seeds. Instead, they flowering plants. They absorb reproduce using tiny spores, which water and nutrients from the are carried on the wind. Fern leaves soil and help anchor the fern are known as fronds, and they grow into the ground. from underground stems. Spores are 50 made on the underside of fronds.

Sori ❯ Spores are produced in brown structures called sori on the underside of the fronds. These sori can be arranged in speckles or lines, depending on the type of fern. What is a fern? Rachis ❯ The top part of the stalk is known as the rachis. It is the backbone of the frond. Stipe ❯ The stiff stem at the Fossilized fern bottom of the plant is known as Ferns first appeared almost 360 million years ago, among the stipe. It is often covered with mossy swamps. Some large, treelike ferns had fronds as long as 93⁄4 ft (3 m). The fossil below shows an extinct fern that scales or hairs, for protection. looks very similar to modern ferns, such as the male fern. Rhizome ❯ The main stem of most ferns The comblike arrangement of leaflets is known as the rhizome. It sits either on earns this fern its name the soil’s surface or just below, although Pecopteris—the Greek in some tree ferns the stems can develop word for comb. into a tall, woody trunk. The fronds of the fern emerge from the rhizome, which is often too short to be seen. Pecopteris fern fossil 51

Fern Male fern These simple fronds fronds are said to look This feather-shaped like deer tongues. fern is native to much of Europe, Asia, and North America. Furled fronds are known as fiddleheads because they look like the scrolls of violins. Harfte’srntongue Clumps of fronds grow from a short stem at the base. Soft shield fern Brown, spore-producing specks on the underside are called sori. elike habit Softtree fern hJaolplaynfeesren Tre Ferns are among the most primitive land plants. As most live on shady forest floors, they make large leaves, called fronds, to help them gather as much sunlight as possible. Many ferns share a distinctive leaf shape, with leaflets that divide, and then divide again. Ferns do not produce flowers. Instead, they grow tiny spores on the underside of their leaves, which are blown by the wind and eventually 52 grow into new plants.

mCaoimdemnohair n Several fan-shaped The leaves of this fern leaflets form each frond. fern are silvery in spring and green Ant fern in summer. art leaf fern He Ostrich fernThese glossy leavesFossil pJaaipnatnedesfeern can be heart- or arrow-shaped. records show Leaf segments unfurl as the main that ferns stalk unrolls. date back 360 million years. The tall clumping BrackenSpore-producing leaves can unfurl to Carrot fern cups line the edges 67 in (170 cm) long. of each frond. The feathery fronds of this plant resemble carrot leaves. Tufts of bracken thrive in open forests and pastures. Bracken on forest floor There are about 10,500 known species, the spore-producing brown regions species of ferns some of which have on the underside of fronds are arranged in simple undivided fronds, such as distinct patterns or shapes, such as the lines those of the hart’s tongue fern and of speckles on the Japanese holly fern. the heart leaf fern. Most are green, The tiny spores are usually carried away by but a few have unusual colors, like the wind, although ants living in the hollow the purple-veined, silvery leaves of the stems of the ant fern may also help this Japanese painted fern. In many plant spread its spores.

DINOSAUR DIET Until about 140 million years ago, there were no flowering plants anywhere on Earth. Some gigantic plant-eating dinosaurs of the Jurassic period browsed in the treetops for the tough, fibrous foliage of pine trees that existed at the time. Others reached down to pluck the fronds of low-growing and nutritious ferns and horsetails.

During this time, the climate was warm and moist almost the trees to feed. They could even rear up on their hind legs everywhere, with no polar ice. This encouraged the growth for extra height. Similar to modern elephants, they also would of dense forests of conifers, ginkgos, club mosses, cycads, have broken down a lot of trees, creating open areas where and tree ferns that covered much of the land. Dinosaurs such smaller plants such as ferns could flourish. Diplodocus fed on as these two Diplodocus, which lived in what is now North these, too, combing the stems through their peglike teeth to strip America, had long, flexible necks for stretching high into away the green foliage and gulping it down without chewing.

Nonflowering plants What is Closed cone scales ❯ The female a conifer cone? cones contain ovules (clusters of female cells) that will develop A conifer cone contains the male into seeds if they are fertilized or female cells of conifer trees. In by pollen. Blown on the wind, nonflowering plants such as pine the pollen grains are small trees, cones are the equivalent of enough to slip between the a flower. The seeds of conifers are scales and enter each ovule. not contained in fruits but develop between the scales of the pollinated female cones. The scales protect the seeds until they are fully developed, then open up to release their seeds. Male and female cones The tough scales enclose ovules, which form on thin scales inside. Pollen sac Ovule These soft scales carry pollen sacs that contain the pollen grains. Male cone Female cone Most conifer trees have separate male and female cones. The long, soft male cones produce pollen, while the woody female cones contain ovules that will become seeds when fertilized. The pollen grains are tiny, like dust, so they are easily blown on the wind. 56 Closed Austrian pine cone

Other cone-bearing trees Cycads Sometimes living for 1,000 years, Welwitschia Found only in the Namib Ginkgo These trees are either male or female. What is a conifer cone? these slow-growing, palmlike plants Desert in Africa, these plants are either male The males have pollen-bearing cones, but the females produce seeds that swell up to look develop structures called strobili, which or female. Although not true conifers, the are similar to conifer cones. females have seed-bearing cones. like the fruits of flowering trees. Open cone scales ❯ When the seeds inside a cone are ready, dry weather triggers the cones to open up or even fall off the tree, so the wind can blow the seeds away. Tough, woody scales grow Cross section of all around the cone. They a female cone open slightly to allow fertilization and then close again to protect the developing seeds. Open Austrian pine cone Seed ❯ Conifer seeds Winged 57 seed can take up to two years to mature. They are attached to thin scales that act like wings, allowing the seeds to be carried away in the wind when the time is right.

Pines and needles Needles can stay Cedar needles contain green for more oils used in perfumes than 45 years. and colognes. Tufts of needles The smallest of all pines,risptilneeconeSiberian Atlas cedar this tree usually grows only up dwarf pine to 10 ft (3 m) in height. This tree gets its name from the B This Asian use of its foliage cedar has distinctive during Christmas drooping branches. in Mexico. Bristlecone pines can live for more than 5,000 years. Deodar cedar Sacred fir The pine family contains more than 200 The needles of pines, including those of the types of conifer trees, including pines, firs, bristlecone pine and sugar pine, grow in spruces, larches, and cedars. Although they clusters of two to five—each cluster from a may look similar, these cone-bearing trees single bud. Cedar needles, such as those of the have distinct patterns of needlelike leaves Lebanon cedar, also grow in clusters, but these 58 that can be used to tell them apart. may contain 15–45 needles and are typically

Young silver fir trees are Needles grow often used as Christmas in bunches of trees in Europe. five and can be 4 in (11 cm) long. Sharply pointed needles This slow-growing but resilient tree has a life span of 150–600 years. Blue spruce Short needles turn golden yellow and This wide-spreading tree orange in fall. can reach up to 130 ft (40 m) in height. It is the national Tamarack emblem of Lebanon and larch appears on its flag. European silver fir Whorls of needles This tall tree Sugar pine can grow rapidly, Lebanon cedar reaching more shorter than pine needles. Firs, such as the than 310 ft (95 m) European silver fir, have flat needles that in height. grow individually from the branch. Spruces, including the blue spruce and the sitka Sitka spruce spruce, have sharp four-sided needles. Larch needles are particularly unusual because, unlike most conifers, they are not evergreen but deciduous. In fall, the light blue-green needles of the tamarack larch change color before falling off, turning the wooded mountains glorious golden colors.

Conifer cones Monkey puzzle tree (male) Male pollen cones grow up to 6 in (15 cm) in length. Lodgepole Tightly closed woody pine cones face down on branches. (female) These giant cones can weigh up to 11 lb (5 kg). Female cones produce seeds about 18 months after pollination. Wollemi pine Young red cones Coulter pine turn brown before European larch releasing seeds. Red female cones sometimes grow 20 in (50 cm) long. Male cones can take up to a year to Zululand cycad ripen, turn brown, Round, green and release pollen. cones turn purple when ripe. Each of these Thick, leathery small yellow leaves change color cones produces from bronze to green a single seed. as they mature. Outeniqua yellowwood Kauri (male) Common juniper Conifer trees bear cones instead of Conifers have a few tricks for flowers. All conifers have separate male dispersing their seeds. Some, such and female cones, which sometimes as the Outeniqua yellowwood grow on different trees. Male cones and common juniper, make fleshy, make pollen, while female cones, when berrylike cones. Birds eat the cones pollinated, produce seeds. Cones come and spread the seeds in their in many shapes, sizes, and colors, but droppings. Other conifers need 60 all are pollinated by wind. specific conditions for seed dispersal.

CONE SIZE 26 in (66 cm) Green cones Conifer cones produce bright Pineapple zamia The sugar pine grows the orange seeds. world’s longest conifer Norway spruce (female) Sugar pine (wet) cones—more than four times longer than a human hand. The pink female cones of this spruce are 6 in (15 cm) tall and the largest of the spruces. Sugar pine (dry) These blue female cones Scales open in dry stand upright on conditions to release top of branches. winged seeds up to Korean 11⁄2 in (4 cm) long. fir Cones Colorful pollen cones may have are only 4⁄5 in “armored (2 cm) long. up” to prevent dinosaurs from eating them. A(tlmaaslec)edar Pitch pine (male) This soft-scaled cone grows up to 3 in (8 cm) long. The female cones of the kauri break apart and release seeds when mature, while lodgepole pine cones do not open until they feel the strong heat of a fire. The female cones of the sugar pine open only in dry weather, so their light seeds are blown far and wide without moisture in the air weighing them down.

FLOWERING PLANTS

Flowering plants What is Stigma ❯ This is the female a flower? part of the flower and has Many plants rely on animals, such as bees either a sticky tip or fine and hummingbirds, to help them reproduce. hairs to trap pollen. To attract these animals, many plants have flowers that are brightly colored, have a sweet Pollen ❯ The fine yellow grains scent, and produce a sugary nectar for them to eat. When the animal visits the flower to find of pollen, found on a tubular the nectar, it becomes covered in pollen. The structure called an anther, contain animal, known as a pollinator, then transports the plant’s male sex cells. the pollen to another flower. Fertilization Pollen Stamen ❯ Each stamen has a long Stigma filament with an anther on the top where the pollen is produced. Style A pollen tube grows Petals ❯ Colorful, often down through the style. The ovary contains scented, petals attract the female reproductive The ovule is fertilized pollinating animals to the by the pollen to become flower. Petals come in all organs of the flower. a new plant. shapes and sizes and often look brighter to insect eyes than to human eyes. Pollination A tiger lily has colorful petals and sugary nectar for animals such as this bee to eat. As it When pollen lands on a flower’s stigma, it grows a tiny tube that feeds, the bee brushes against the pollen, which travels through the style, taking the male pollen cells to the ovary. sticks to its body. Pollen contains male cells. The male cells join with female cells, in the ovules, which become When the bee visits another tiger lily, the pollen the seeds. This process is called fertilization. will brush onto the new flower’s stigma, and grow 64 towards the female cells. This is called pollination.

Pollen sticks to the Some bees collect balls of What is a flower? hairs of visiting bees. pollen on their hind legs and transport it back to Anther the hive for food. Tiger lily The style is the stalk that supports the stigma. Ovary ❯ This part of the flower Nectar ❯ Many flowers produce a contains female sex cells, which are fertilized by the pollen. After sweet liquid called nectar at the fertilization, the ovary develops base of the petals to attract into a fruit, with the seeds inside. pollinators such as bees. Ovule A stalk supports the flower. 65

Flower forms Frangipani Flowering plants derpuff Red pow Rotate Bird-of-paradise Spherical Red stamens make the flower Orange and look like a fluffy pompom. The sweet-smelling purple flowers glove frangipani is used to make attract sunbirds, The flower flower necklaces in Hawaii. which stand on buds at the the thick green Fox top open last. perch to access the sweet nectar. Spots Irregular inside the A green, beaklike bract foxglove protects the flowers guide flowers. bees to the nectar. Pale yellow flowers Primr Wpalaxnt bloom all over Europe during spring. ose Bell-shaped Flat-topped tube Thick, waxy petals can Star-shaped withstand tropical storms. Plants have flowers that come Some plants, such as primrose, frangipani, in a variety of sizes and colors. and poppy, have simple, open flower shapes Botanists (plant scientists) study a that are perfect for a quick visit from an insect. flower’s shape to better understand Others make dense clusters of flowers called how it may be pollinated, by bees, inflorescences to provide more of a meal for 66 bats, birds, or a breeze! pollinators. For example, the red powderpuff

The delicate flower has K a lovely, sweet fragrance. Flower forms ing protea Pea-shaped ea Sweet p A spike of tiny Arum lily yellow flowers Small flowers fill the is surrounded by a center of these massive white, petal-like bract. blooms, which can grow up to 12 in (30 cm) across. Cream-colored flower spikes are up to 4 in (11 cm) across. Small Guelder ro Composite flowers on spike Red hot poker se Pink quill Four large petals form a cup shape. Poppy Purple flowers Cup-shaped grow from the edges of the pink bracts. A hairy bud Tube-shaped protects the The stem of the The petals change guelder rose is smooth, growing flower. color from orange to yellow as they open. not thorny like a true Saucer-shaped rose plant. as they perch on the flower. Other plants Funnel-shaped make a special, often colorful, petal-like leaf called a bract, to attract many pollinators. makes a ball of tiny stamens to attract bees Hummingbirds are drawn to the showy bracts and butterflies, while the king protea and of the pink quill, while the white bract of the red hot poker coat the faces of visiting birds arum lily attracts many insects. with a dusting of pollen when they feed. The bird-of-paradise also provides a feast for visiting birds, covering their feet with pollen

Flowering plants Pollinators This day-flying moth uses its strawlikethbird mouthpart—which is about as long as its The long beak body—to drink nectar from flowers of reaches into the flower, many shapes and sizes. and the bird’s head is dusted with pollen. Huhmamwikn-gmo hVuiomlmetinsagbr The tiny wings of the hummingbird can ewbinirgd flap many times in a second, allowing the bird to hover in one place as it feeds. y possum Pygm The waxy bract of the Bell-shaped, The possum’s banana flower bud curves yellow flowers excellent climbing back to give birds easy remain closed access to the flower inside. unless forced open skills help it run by a pollinator. up and down blebee Bum flowering trees. Lady bug As the bumblebee Beetle-pollinated opens up the flower flowers make a lot and scrambles inside to of pollen that stick to get to the nectar, its fuzzy these clumsy insects. hairs collect pollen. This eucalyptus tree flowers in winter, relying on mammals for pollination at a time when insects are scarce. Although insects are the most common Bees and butterflies visit fragrant, brightly pollinators, larger animals such as birds colored flowers, which grow in clusters or and bats also play a vital role in pollination. have large petals for the insects to land on. In return, plants provide sweet nectar. Many moths prefer white or very pale flowers Different flower shapes, colors, and that open at night, following their sweet floral 68 smells attract specific pollinators. scents to find them in the dark. Beetles, such

Butterflies Strong, grasping Lesser long-nosed bat claws help the parrot The flower heads of hang onto the branch buddleia are so popular while drinking nectar. with butterflies that it is known as the butterfly bush. Flexible stigmas collect pollen from the lorikeet’s head. orikeet The bat’s flexible tongue helps it reach deep inside a flower. Rainbow l These tubular saguaro cactus flowers cover the bat’s nose in pollen as it reaches inside to drink nectar. NECTAR GUIDES Unlike humans, bees can see ultraviolet (UV) light. Many flowers, such as this marsh marigold, may appear plain to us, but under UV light, we can see how the petals have dark patterns that guide insects to their nectar and pollen. More than 500 species of plants are pollinated by bats. Under normal light Under UV light as ladybugs, also pollinate pale-colored flowers but these tend not to be scented, since birds do 69 but choose fruity-smelling blooms. These flowers not have a sense of smell. The petals of bird- mimic the scent of ripe fruit to trick beetles into pollinated flowers are usually bent back to allow visiting them for food. Of the larger pollinators, the animals easy access. Bats pollinate some birds are attracted to bright, day-flowering night-flowering plants and are attracted to large, blossoms. Hummingbirds favor reddish flowers, pale flowers with a musty smell.

Looks Indian pipe familiar Parrot flower The showy flowers The bright pink look like flying outer petals resemble parrots with little green “beaks.” love hearts. These ghostly Asian bleeding heart white parasitic plants grow into Skull-shaped seed pods the roots of trees appear after flowering. to steal food. Snapdragon Two red petals fan out like a pair of ears from the Dar purple, bat-faced center. th Vader plant The helmet-shaped Naked man The purple flowers look flowers smell like rotting orchid like little people, complete flesh to attract flies. with arms and legs. Bat-faced cuphea These fun flowers look like animals Many of the unique and colorful flowers shown and other objects, from birds to love here belong to the orchid family, which consists hearts. While most of these similarities of thousands of different plants. This includes the are only a coincidence, in some cases, naked man orchid, the dancing lady orchid, the resemblance has evolved to attract and the white egret flower. The bee orchid 70 potential pollinators. flower, which looks like a female bee, attracts

A The delicate white bee orchid’s petals resemble the outstretched wings of fragrance can a heronlike white bird trick a male bee called an egret. into thinking it Looks familiar is meeting a female. These masses of pollen stick to the bee’s head, to be transferred to the next flower. White egret flower The red leaflike bracts attract hummingbirds to pollinate the flowers inside. Bee orchid Hot lips The pink sepals look The duck’s “head” like wings, and the curls down over visiting flower even has a fuzzy, insects to deposit “hairy” body like a bee. pollen on them. Laorrgcehidduck The large, ruffled The labellum, or lip, petal of this traps pollinating insects. chocolate-scented Dancing lady orchid flower looks like a dancer’s gown. male bees, attaching packages of pollen demand can place a strain on 71 to them in the process. The large duck rarer species. For this reason, the orchid looks more like a female sawfly than government of Thailand has banned a duck to male sawflies, luring these pollinators. the export of the rare parrot flower While many of these eye-catching plants are plant and its seeds to protect its popular with gardeners, too great a market dwindling numbers in the wild.

RIVER OF BLOSSOM A bird’s-eye view of Inokashira Park in Tokyo, Japan, reveals the waters of the pond running through it are pink with the petals of the spectacular cherry trees that line its banks. Families and friends take picnics to the park and sit beneath the trees to eat, drink, listen to music, and enjoy the beauty of the blossoms. Later, lanterns hung in the branches are lit, and festivities carry on into the night.

At the start of every year, the Japanese weather office because thousands of people celebrate flower-viewing monitors the temperature and conditions to try to predict parties, a Japanese tradition, known as hanami, that dates when the cherry trees, called sakura, will bloom. The back to the 8th century. The trees will carry their blossoms trees blossom first in the warmer south of Japan, and for only a week or two, and people need to plan their the “blossom front” spreads up the country, moving north festivities. In Japanese culture, the cherry tree’s short-lived as spring advances. The blossom forecasts are important bloom is often associated with the fragility of human life.

A garden of roses Flowering plants Ban A line of rose-covered Seeds inside This climbing ks’ rose arches in a beautiful garden the rose hip are rose is native The crimson in Baden-Baden, Germany. to China. rose becomes eaten by birds more fragrant attracted by the in the warmth of the sun. red fruit and spread in their droppings. Rose garden This full blooming variety was bred from five-petaled wild roses. Sunblest rose Dog rose hips Munstead wood SPACE ROSE Fruits called hips develop once the flower has been fertilized and the petals fall off. Cupped golden In 1998, researchers sent Chinese rose yellow petals the miniature rose they called are mildly “Overnight Scentsation” into scented. space, aboard NASA’s Space Shuttle Discovery. The purpose Long, straight stems hold these was to study the effect of low medium- to large-sized roses upright. gravity on the oils released from the rose’s petals. After 10 days, they discovered that the rose had produced an entirely new scent, unlike any rose scent found on Earth. Roses were the first plants to be grown Almost all wild roses have five overlapping simply for their beauty and have graced petals and are known as “single” blooms. gardens for around 5,000 years. The rose Over the centuries, gardeners have taken flower has been used as a symbol across species of wild roses, particularly the the world, representing ideas such as Chinese rose, and cultivated them to get love and purity, as well as adopted flowers with three or more layers of petals, as the emblem of kings and countries. known as “double” blooms, such as the 74

This multilayered This pale pink rose variety cost rose is prized for its smell. $4 million to develop. Making rose oil, Bulgaria Rose petals must be steamed with water, the same day they are Musk ros picked, to extract the perfumed oil. sa Mundi Juliet rose eThis striped pink flower was cultivated Pale pink flowers more than 400 years ago. bloom from dark pink buds. Ro Iceberg was voted the “world’s Some favorite rose” in 1983. rose prickles can be made into f ishing hooks. Leaflike sepals protect the growing bud. Dog rose This deep red rose may have as many as 26–40 petals and is very fragrant. Iceberg rose Crimson glory Banks’ rose and iceberg rose. Some modern wonderful fragrance used in perfumes and 75 varieties, including the Juliet rose and crimson many other beauty products, while rose water glory, have more than 25 petals and are called is used to flavor sweets such as Turkish delight. “full” blooms. Rose breeders have been able Some roses, such as the dog rose, bear glossy, seed-bearing fruits called rose hips in fall. Rich to create white, yellow, orange, pink, and in vitamin C, these can be used in teas, red roses, but never a truly blue one. preserves, and medicines. Rose petals contain oils with a

Flowering plants Crazy for With nearly 25,000 species, daisies make daisies up one of the largest plant families. But their pretty flower heads are not quite what Conefl they seem. What looks like one flower is in fact a cluster of lots—sometimes thousands—of tiny flowers in the center, with a ring of what looks like petals but is in fact more flowers around the edge. ower The striped ray Orange pom-poms Stifftia florets surround a are made of individual center of tiny disk florets. flowers and colorful hairs. Treasure flower Pink petals surround a spiny conelike center that is full of nectar. Tubular flowers are produced by this critically endangered Hawaiian plant. Yellow-tipped Bfllaonwkeert red florets, which look like flames, give this plant the name “firewheel.” Maui island-aster Three separate florets look like The round flower a single flower. head is made up of small flowers, ranging from purple to metallic-blue. Globe The spiky Whorl 76 thistle flower globe thistle is also called the blue hedgehog.

Daisies such as the treasure flower, the common Each floret produces one seed. The flower-packed daisy, and chicory have large outer petal-like heads of daisies make them much more ray florets, surrounding the disk florets in the attractive to insects and makes pollination a lot center. Each disk floret is in fact five fused petals easier. Most have bright colors to attract insect that form a tubelike flower, which you can see pollinators, such as bees, but the tropical Mutisia clearly in the whorl flower. The sunflower has flower is pollinated by birds. The other tropical a large head so you can make out the individual daisies, stifftia and the Maui island-aster, disk florets as they bloom, from the outside in. are unusual because they grow on trees. Crazy for daisies The largest sunflower head Mutisia ever grown was in 1983, at 321⁄4 in (82 cm) across. Each petal-like ray floret is a lopsided flower. The orange ray florets attract bird pollinators. Sunflower Yellow disk florets at the center produce pollen and make seeds. Edible blue flowers, which are bitter in taste, can be eaten in salads. Chicory The purple florets fade to cream toward the center of the flower head. Persian Common daisy 77 cornflower

Ingenious phyllum orchids Flowering plants Bulbo Moth orchid These decorative The long petals of this petals can be red, orchid often smell rotten white, yellow, or pink. to attract pollinator flies. Oncidium These unusual speckled One colorful Red cr Large, long-lived flowers bloom for two toZygopetalum petal is the flowers make this three months in a year. focus of these orchid a popular unusual flowers. houseplant. Large petal acts as a landing platform oss orchid for insects. Cross-shaped lip petals give this orchid its name. ReEnpeicaMtatlreqyuaes Orchids are beautiful flowers with clever Orchids are found almost everywhere tactics for attracting pollinators. Some in the world but are most common in mimic male insects, so rival males will the tropics where, like the vanda orchid, attack them and get covered in pollen. they live high in the rain forest trees. In Others attract male insects by looking cooler climates orchids usually grow on like females. Some flowers entice bees the ground. All orchids have three outer and butterflies with a sweet smell, while sepals and three inner petals, including a 78 others stink of rotting meat to draw flies. distinctive lip petal that acts as a landing

These flowers Van da blossom for only Slipper orchid three days so have a strong scent to attract pollinator bees quickly. Stanhopea Nun orchid Tubular petals lure insects inside. Aerial roots collect water from moisture in the air. These showy flowers White petals attract pollinators in are pollinated only by spite of this flower’s lack of nectar. one species of butterfly. Insects enter Red disa Cattleya purpurata this pouchlike platform for pollinators. Oncidium and zygopetalum flowers petal and are have particularly large lip petals, and in the nun orchid and covered in pollen cattleya flowers, these take the shape of colorful tubes. Orchids bundle their pollen into sticky packages, which attach to pollinators as they struggle when they visit the flower. Some orchids can be pollinated only by to get out. a single species of insect—for the red disa orchid, for example, it is the mountain pride butterfly. This leaves the orchid very vulnerable. There If the insect went extinct, the orchid would follow. are 28,000 known species of orchids in the world. 79

Blossoms and bulbs d Pisnorkrewloo Daffodil Tiny bulbs called bulbils, Large bulbs give rise which are 1⁄4 – 7⁄16 in to yellow, trumpet- shaped blooms. (7–11 mm ) in size, can Amaryllis grow into new plants. Large flowers bloom before leaves grow from the bulb. This bulb starts flowering about 6–8 weeks after planting. Amaryllis Each bulb wild leek Delicate, lilylike Nerine flowers are produced stalk can produce on leafless stalks. more than 500 flowers. UNDERGROUND STORE This bulb grows only in cool weather during the fall. A bulb is made up of a short stem that produces layers of fleshy leaves known as scales, which store food and water. Leaves use Nerine bulb sunlight to make food. An outer layer Some of our favorite flowers grow protects the bulb. from underground food stores, called bulbs. Packed with food and water, bulbs Scales are New leaves grow lie dormant beneath the soil when the a type of leaf from the stem. weather is either too hot or too cold, that stores food. hidden from hungry animals. But as soon as conditions are right, they Short stem Roots hold the quickly sprout new shoots and leaves. connects the bulb in the ground. roots and shoots. Cross section of a bulb

Clusters of purple Blossoms and bulbs flowers grow on stalks Giant onion up to 3 ft (1 m) tall. Hyacinth Balls of flowers can grow 7 in (20 cm) across. Poisonous bulbs can irritate skin on contact. Tulip Waxy leaves are arranged alternately on the stem. Dwarf iris Leek Roots continue to grow Bulbs multiply and absorb nutrients and as they mature moisture during the cool and grow into new plants. fall season. Leek bulbs form long, Long roots can straight white barrels. pull the bulbs deeper into the soil. Leek bulb Many South African plants, such as popular blooms, farmed for selling as 81 amaryllises and nerines, spend the cut flowers for the home. Although hot summer as bulbs under the ground, some bulb plants, such as leeks and flowering in the fall when it is cooler. onions, are edible, others produce Others, such as daffodils, tulips, and toxic chemicals to discourage animals hyacinths, flower in the spring after from digging up the bulbs and eating the cold winter in other countries has them. Daffodil, hyacinth, and tulip bulbs ended. These are some of the most are poisonous to many animals.

Flowering plants What’s When we think of flowers, we usually that smell? think of the colorful petals and sweet scents that attract pollinators such as bees or butterflies. But some plants smell truly terrible. Their stinking flowers, leaves, and roots attract a different set of pollinators, including flies and beetles. White blossoms Carrion The flowers, Pineapple lily smell like rotting flowers which bloom in fish to attract flies spring and summer, as pollinators. can grow up smell like rotting meat to draw to 16 in in insects. (41 cm) across. Bradford pear Draarguomn The star-shaped, Carrion imCpreorwianl The flower hairy flower looks plant spike may like a dead animal. resemble an attractive pineapple but can smell awful. This strange-looking flower traps insects until they are all covered in pollen. No Durian This plant's brightly colored Smelly durian is blooms, leaves, and banned on public stem smell like foxes. transportation in Jackal food 82 Singapore.

Some flowers, such as those of the Bradford deer, by stinking like a fox or a skunk. Not pear and carrion plant, smell like rotting only do plants such as the dead horse meat to attract flies. Jackal food plants arum and titan arum smell awful, but spend most of their lives underground, they also heat up their flowers to help this sending up a poo-scented flower to be smell spread farther. The vomitlike smells pollinated by dung beetles. The crown of the durian fruit and female ginkgo nut imperial plant, however, uses smell to scare are so strong that both are banned from off would-be attackers, such as squirrels and many public places in some countries. What’s that smell? Gi Valerian nkgo Dead horse arFleshy, smelly nuts The roots of of the female tree valerian smell like sweaty socks. contain edible seeds that do not smell. This giant flower spike can heat up um to 90 °F (32 °C). Titan arum The petal-like Also known as the corpse flower, bract is flesh-colored, titan arum has a red flower sheath that hairy, and smells looks and smells like rotting meat. like rotting meat. The delicate FLOWER TOWER 10 ft (3 m) tall leaves of this plant smell like roast The titan arum beef when bruised makes the tallest or damaged. flower spike in the world, but it flowers only once every two to seven years in the Sumatran rain forest in Indonesia. Stinking Titan arum iris

Flowering plants Living Ponds, rivers, and oceans are full of plants. th in water These often grow quickly because they Fl rouwsehring have access to a lot of water and sunlight. Flower spike Some aquatic plants float on the surface, and leaves reach up their flat leaves soaking up the sun’s rays, to 5 ft (1.5 m) tall. while others are fully submerged. Many send up leaves and flowers from an Waxy lily pads rest anchored underwater root. on the water’s surface. Water hyacin Water lily Air-filled leaf stalks help the plant float. Fanwort Fan-shaped leaves give this plant its name. Stems, not roots, anchor this Hornwort plant under water. LIVING UNDER WATER All plants need oxygen to survive. Some aquatic plants take in oxygen from the water, while others, such as the water lily, have tiny tubes in their stalks to carry air from above the water’s surface to their roots. Air spaces allow Water lily oxygen to pass from the leaves down to the roots. Cross section of leaf stalk

Just like plants on land, water-based plants to let the water drift freely through without tearing Living in water need sunlight to make food and have found their them. Water hyacinths and water lettuces trap own unique ways to survive. Plants such as the air in their leaves to help them float. While some flowering rush and water lily are rooted at water plants provide a habitat and food for fish and the bottom of ponds and rivers but push out long other aquatic animals, others such as waterweed leaves to capture sunlight and tall flower stalks and parrot’s feather grow so quickly that they to be pollinated by insects. The feathery leaves often take over lakes and streams, harming other of the fanwort and hornwort spread out plants and the animals that live there. Umbrella grass WTufts of leaves protect r Bright green feathery Parrot’s feathethe developing flowers. leaves and stem can stand up to 11 3⁄4 in (30 cm) out of the water. ater lettuce Pairs of flowers form a V shape. hawWtahtoerrn Tall stems carry leaves that resemble umbrella spokes. Tiny hairs The Clumps of eelgrass trap air to help form meadows the plant float. earliest under the ocean. plants to grow Leaves grow up to 61⁄2 ft (2 m) long. on Earth evolved Brazilian in water. ommon eelgrass waterweed American eelgrass C Dense leaves can be up to 1 in (3 cm) long.

Along The soil along a riverbank is rich in the river nutrients deposited by flooding, so Flowering plants Swamp rose mallow plants here can grow large and often very fast. They can thrive all summer Each large flower long, as they never suffer drought. grows to about 6 in However, when a river floods, the (15 cm) across. fast-flowing water may carry away anything not firmly rooted in the soil. Cattail Brilliant yellow flowers attract bees in early spring. Giant rhubarb Marsh marigold Tiny, brown female flowers grow in the form of a dense spike. These huge leaves have a spiny underside that stops animals from eating them. GIANT LEAVES Native to riverbanks in Brazil, the giant rhubarb has massive leaves—the largest undivided leaves of any flowering plant. Its flowers, however, are tiny and grow on spiky heads near the ground. 11 ft (3.3 m)

One of the biggest riverside plants, the giant loosestrife, water spearmint, and candelabra rhubarb, grows 8 ft (2.5 m) tall and 13 ft (4 m) primrose lie dormant in winter but grow fast in wide. Not much smaller, the white skunk spring or summer. Cattail, soft rush, and cabbage grows huge cabbagelike leaves. Both snowberry have a different survival plants die away in winter, shedding leaves strategy. They are present all year that might otherwise become caught up in long, and their tough leaves or stems floodwater and uproot them. Plants such can withstand swift floodwaters, so as the marsh marigold, purple each year they grow even larger. The brown, Stalks In North America, these white conelike structures of horsetail berries are food for bighorn at the end of this sheep and grizzly bears. nonflowering plant’s were used by early stems contain spores. American pioneers to Soft rush Csnoomwmboenrry scour pots and pans. Clusters of up to six flowers Rough horsetail Tall spikes of delicate are borne on tall, mauve flowers blossom sturdy stems. in late summer. Candelabra primrose Large, white A cluster of bright leaflike bracts red flowers grows on These leaves have attract flies to the a minty smell. smelly flower heads. the side of the stem. Purple loosestrife White skunk cabbage Water spearmint

FLOODED FOREST A shoal of fish swirl past the tangled roots of a mangrove tree that stands partially submerged in the warm Caribbean Sea off the Central American country of Belize. Most mangroves grow along tropical and subtropical coastlines, where their roots are flooded with seawater twice a day. Such a wet, salty environment would be fatal to most plants, but mangrove forests thrive in it.

Mangroves include everything from small shrubs to huge trees, tide, the pores in their roots close, preventing the trees from all adapted for living in salt water. The plants use a range of getting waterlogged. Mangroves are an important tropical survival tactics, from filtering out salt in seawater as they drink and subtropical habitat, acting as natural storm barriers and it in through their roots to releasing salt through leaf pores. preventing coastal erosion. The network of roots is also a Many mangrove trees stop their roots from rotting by absorbing source of food for fish and other small ocean creatures, and oxygen through spongy standing roots at low tide. Then, at high helps shelter them from larger predators.

Flowering plants What is a cactus? Cacti come in all shapes and sizes, but nearly all of them have large swollen stems that allow them to store water. This is because many cacti grow in areas with little or no rainfall for long periods of time. Desert cacti have clever adaptations to help them survive extreme heat and drought, however a few very different cacti live in rain forests. Summer flower ❯ The monk’s hood cactus produces pale yellow flowers throughout the summer. They are pollinated by insects and produce spiky fruits. Water is stored in the barrel-shaped stem. Some cacti, such as this one, expand when filled with water and contract when dry. Mass of Roots ❯ The roots of this cactus thin roots. spread across a large area and grow close to the surface. They Inside a monk’s hood cactus quickly draw in as much water as possible from rain or dew. 90

Spine ❯ These help shade Cacti shapes the stem and stop animals Columnar from eating the cactus. A Cacti, such as the spine is, in fact, a type of saguaro, can grow modified leaf with a small 40 ft (12 m) tall, surface area to prevent and have distinctive water from evaporating. armlike side branches. Bats pollinate their The ribs channel flowers, which grow dew to the roots. at the top of the plant. Monk’s hood Clustering cactus The prickly pear cactus has flattened Flakes ❯ In a desert, the sun is very stems that grow in clusters. The red, bright. White flakes grow on the stem prickly fruit must of the cactus, helping to reflect light. be peeled to remove the small spines. Globular Many cacti, like the barrel cactus, have rounded stems. This maximizes water storage, while its vertical ridges direct every drop of water to the roots. Climbing Some cacti live in forests, where they clamber up other plants for sunlight. The queen of the night cactus has huge flowers that bloom for just one night. Where do they grow? Deserts Desert cacti have to survive extreme heat and light. Often large and spiny, they grow all over North and South America. Forests Some cacti grow in shaded forests. Their stems do not need to store water, as the roots draw moisture from the air. Grasslands Smaller cacti often grow in grasslands, where the grasses shade them in summer. Most are found in South America.

Cool cacti Long, yellow spines Vertical stems erupt in starry clusters can grow up to from ridges on the body. 26 ft (8 m) tall. Organ pipe cactus Barrel cactus Branches can take Overlapping up to 40 years to form, stems create growing at less than a fan shape. 1 in (2.5 cm) a year. Paddle-shaped stems are flat, unlike stems in most cacti. Saguaro Bilberry cactus 63 ft (19.2 m) TALLEST CACTUS Prickly pear With a recorded height of 63 ft (19.2 m) and a trunk about 3 ft (1 m) thick, the Mexican false saguaro is the tallest-known living cactus in the world. Birds such as this owl use the saguaro cactus for nesting. Many cacti live in the desert, where their Living in hot and dry environments means that water-filled stems help them survive long cacti have to make the most of the rare, but often periods of drought. Most plants use their heavy, rainfall. Ribs on the barrel cactus allow leaves to make food from sunlight, but it to stretch its stem to quickly take in as much cacti do this using their green, fleshy water as possible. In harsh desert conditions, stems. To protect themselves from plants grow very slowly and live a long time. hungry animals, cacti have specially Some, such as the saguaro and false saguaro 92 adapted leaves called spines. cacti, can live for up to 300 years. These tall

s cactus Fiercely False saguaro sharp, long spines protect this cactus. Flowers bloom around Christma White, hairlike Christmastime in the spines reduce Northern Hemisphere. Fragrant flowers evaporation. grow on top of this rounded cactus. Tephrocactus Old man cactus Red spines give this plant its name. Bishop’s cap cactus Mexican fire barrel Neocnacbtruosom Flowers open at night for moth and beetle pollinators. Stout stems can be up to 31⁄3 ft (1 m) thick. cacti, along with the organ pipe cactus, are 93 pollinated by lesser long-nosed bats at night, while most other species are visited by insects or birds during the day. Prickly pear flowers curl their anthers around visiting bees to coat them in pollen. Not all cacti live in the desert—the Christmas cactus, for example, grows on trees in the tropical rain forests of Brazil.

Desert survivors Flowering plants When dry, resurrection After rain, the leaves unfurl E plants close down and curl in a matter of hours. cheveria up to preserve moisture. Dried plant Resurrection plant Spiny leaves with sharp tips can grow up to 5 ft (1.5 m) in length. Shiny, triangular Century leaves are arranged plant in a rosette. The dense cushions The high, thorny of leaves of this branches can be eaten only poisonous plant by giraffes, with their trap water inside. muscular tongues. Camel thorn Llareta A desert is a very dry area, with less The echeveria plant and the Queen Victoria than 10 in (25 cm) of rainfall a year. All agave retain water by trapping it inside their plants need water to survive, but desert fleshy leaves. Their leaves also have a waxy plants have adapted to their habitat by surface that reflects the sun’s rays and keeps the using ingenious methods of storing water, plant cool. The resurrection plant can lose reducing the amount they lose, or just more than 95 percent of its weight during dry 94 by being able to survive drying out. periods, shriveling into a dry ball. It can survive

Bitter fruits containWild des The fleshy stem Desert survivors fatty seeds used to makes food for the make oils and biofuels. plant by photosynthesis. ert gourd Now Baseball protected plant by law, baseball These white plants nearly went patterns mark where growing leaves pushed extinct due to against each other. overcollecting. The young leaves African moringa of this tree are eaten and sometimes used as medicine in Ethiopia. Pebblelike leaves camouflage this plant in rocky deserts. Queen Victoria agave Living stone like this for several years but quickly comes back to life when rain soaks its leaves. Like cacti, the baseball plant, living stone, and African moringa store water in their stems. Plants are fairly uncommon in deserts and semideserts, so many predators eye them hungrily. The camel thorn and century plant defend themselves using sharp thorns or spines, while others, including the llareta, protect themselves with poison.

DESERT BLOOM The vast Atacama Desert in Chile is one of the driest places in the world, with very little rainfall. The bare, baked ground appears bleak and lifeless. When it rains, however, millions of flowering plants, such as these purple pussy-paws, spring up and transform the land into a carpet of color. These short-lived plants, or “ephemerals,” grow from seeds that have long lain dormant in the earth.

Desert ephemerals are plants that live fast and die young. season by producing flowers and setting seed very Once the right conditions have triggered their explosion quickly. With the return of drought, the ephemerals of growth, they have a few weeks, or often just days, to disappear as fast as they came. They leave behind their complete their life cycle. Ephemerals are usually small and scattered seeds, safely hidden in cracks in the parched short. Growing tall takes time and energy, and desert plants ground, where they sit out the tough times until the have none to spare. They must make the most of their short next rain. It may be a very long wait.

Meat-eating pical pitcher plant Flowering plants Tro See-through windows plants Cobra plant on the hood confuse trapped prey who Waterwheel plant Underwater traps tire themselves out trying to escape. snap shut in 1⁄50 of a The bright, second when triggered slippery lip attracts insects. by prey. Long teeth keep insects inside as the trap closes. The leaves have pools of water between them where drowned insects are digested. Powdery strap airplant s flytrap Venu INSIDE A PITCHER PLANT Trap closes in 1. Brightly A lid prevents less than a second colored lip, rain from flooding when trigger hairs slippery with the pitcher. are touched. sweet nectar, attracts prey. 2. Waxy insides ensure the insect Some cannot climb out. tropical species have 3. Insect drowns pitchers that in a pool of hang from digestive juices. tendrils. Many animals eat plants, but have you There are different types of meat-eating, or ever heard of a plant eating an animal? carnivorous, plants. Waterwheel plants and Meat-eating plants often grow in bogs, Venus flytraps have snap traps, which quickly trapping insects and other small animals close shut around their victims. Pitcher plants to get the nitrogen and minerals they have a lip of nectar to attract their prey. The 98 need that are missing from the wet soil. insects then fall into the pitcher (jug) of digestive

Tubelike traps contain downward-pointing hairs to prevent their victims’ escape. Trumpet Sensitive hairs, when pitcher plant touched by prey, open the trapdoor, which then swells up and sucks the victim into a pouch. Sensitive hairs covered in sticky juices wrap around the prey. Bladderwort Tube-shaped leaves produce nectar to attract insects, which are digested by bacteria in the trap. Sticky hairs, present on only the summer leaves, trap insects. The undigested Sundew Sun pitcher parts of insects plant sink to the bottom of the colorful trap. Butterwort juices, which break down their bodies. a long time to form pouchlike 99 The flypaper traps of the butterwort and traps to help them get the nutrients sundew have sticky hairs that make sweet they need to survive. Its underwater treats to attract insects, which they digest traps are triggered by sensitive hairs and slowly. The bladderwort is an amazing act like vacuum cleaners to suck in small plant with leaves that have evolved over prey as they swim by.

Poisonous plants White baneberry Belladonna Sweet but These toxic poisonous, these leaves poison black berries can the milk of be deadly. cows that feed on them. Lily of t All parts of this plant White snakeroot are toxic, though the seeds he valley contain the most poison. This pretty Hemlock plant is highly poisonous. A single seed Rosary pea contains enough Throughout history, humans have known about poison to kill an the poisonous properties of certain plants and used them for deadly ends. Belladonna was used adult human. to make poison-tipped arrows, while hemlock is said to have been used to kill the great philosopher Many plants produce poisons to Socrates in ancient Greece. Wolfsbane was prevent them from being eaten. While some will cause only a stomachache, others can kill. You should never eat any part of a plant, unless an expert can confirm it is safe.

Poisonous plantsThe fruit contains Oleandera poisonous seed— eating it can kill a Pong human in two days. pong These bitter, white The poisonous berries look like the leaves are very bitter. eyes of a doll. Cpalsatnotr The purple, helmet-shaped oil flowers of this plant give it its other name, “Devil’s Helmet.” These dangerous leaves can cause Poisonous blisters if touched. plantsWolfsbane Each spiny capsule has three beans inside. contain some of Manchineel the most deadly substances in the world. The deadly sap The toxic of these leaves leaves of this may cause a plant can kill rash if touched. within hours rubbed on arrows for hunting wolves, and if eaten. during Roman times, it was commonly used for murdering enemies. Ricin, extracted Yew Harmless red berries from the castor oil plant, remains one hide poisonous seeds. of the most deadly poisons known today. Although all the plants shown here are toxic to humans, some are harmless to animals. 101 For example, birds can eat the berries of the white baneberry plant and yew without any ill effects. The birds then spread the seeds in their poo. Iguanas are known to feast on the fruit and leaves of the toxic manchineel.

Parasitic Thin stems wrap around plants a host plant and weaken its immune system. The plants take root Mistletoe on branches, from seeds Dodder dropped by birds that eat mistletoe berries. Red flowers are the only part of this leafless parasite that is visible outside the cactus. Cactus mistletoe Mushroom-shaped The pale stems flower stalks emerge of this plant are from underground parasites of stems, which feed on ivy plants. the roots of host plants. Thurber’s stemsucker Hel osis Tiny flowers, 2 mm Most plants absorb water and nutrients Ivy broomrape across, bloom along from the soil to make their own food the host stem. using energy from sunlight, but others have developed sneakier ways to survive. There are two main types of parasitic Parasitic plants pierce the stems or plants. Hemiparasites (half parasites) can roots of other plants to steal their use sunlight to make some of their own food 102 hard-earned supplies. but absorb water, nutrients, and sometimes sugars from the host plants they live on. Some hemiparasites, such as mistletoe and the Australian Christmas tree, will

Butter and eggs INVADING A HOST This tiny All parasitic plants have modified roots called haustoria, wildflower which enter the roots or stems of host plants to steal relies on food, water, and nutrients. nutrients stolen from Parasite the roots of Host plant nearby grasses. The haustoria grow toward the chemical signals given off by the host’s roots. Parasitic plantsEyebrightThe parasite Australian Christmas treeThe corpse steals nutrients from the roots of lily has the other plants to grow as tall as world’s largest 14 in (35 cm). flower, more Corpse than 3 1⁄4 ft (1 m) lily across. The flowers of this plant look and smell like rotting meat. This tree’s greedy Some holoparasites, such as dodder, grow 103 roots can steal above ground. Most, such as the cactus nutrients from plants mistletoe, Helosis, Thurber’s stemsucker, 360 ft (110 m) away. and the impressive corpse lily, live within their host plant, emerging only to flower. die if they cannot find a host to steal from. Parasitic plants do not generally kill their Others, including eyebright and butter and hosts but can weaken them. eggs, can survive without a host, although they tend to not grow as well. On the other hand, the second type, holoparasites (whole parasites), cannot make any food of their own and must find a host plant to survive.

Mountain life The alpine pink’s tiny leaves are almost This sugarbush is an F hidden by large endangered plant in its flowers in spring. native South Africa. orget-me-not Sesrupgeanrbtiunseh Many heads of bright yellow These tightly flowers burst out curled heads of of each rosette. pink buds open into blue flowers. Alpine pink The tall flower Broadleaf ston Star-shaped spikes develop flowers attract quickly in spring. pollinating bees. ecrop Alpine spotted Cobweb house-leek orchid Fleshy blue-green leaves are spade-shaped. Life up a mountain is harsh. At high altitude, plants are exposed to extreme temperatures, freezing weather in winter, and intense sunlight in summer. The thin soil is dry. Yet some hardy plants manage to survive here. Many have short stems to keep out of the wind and small leaves to reduce heat and water loss. They usually hug the ground in clumps. Some plants even have silver or white leaves to reflect sunlight.

The spikes Mountain buttercu of nodding flowers may Mountain lifeThis endangered grow to a height p Hawaiian plant of 24 in (60 cm). grows on the edge of a volcano at more than 6,900 ft (2,100 m). Its swordlike leaves are covered in silver hair. Haleakala silversword Spotted fritillary This wild plant Even the flower heads stays very short to of the prostrate speedwell avoid strong winds. grow close to the ground. Some spPereodstwrealtle plants can grow up to 20,177 ft (6,150 m) above sea level. Long-petaled l This beautiful plant survives extreme cold, but not drought. ewisia Fine white Himalayan may apple This rare plant hairs that look is found only near like cobwebs reduce heat and water loss. Lake Tahoe in California. Mountain plants have adapted to the dry climate of their habitat 105 in different ways. The alpine spotted orchid and spotted fritillary survive the cold winter as bulbs, flowering in spring. The Himalayan may apple cannot tolerate bright, dry conditions, so it grows quickly in spring and then dies back underground for the rest of the year. Others, such as the broadleaf stonecrop, alpine pink, cobweb house-leek, and long-petaled lewisia produce short, sturdy leaves, and survive all year by staying close to the ground for protection from the wind.

Creepers and climbers Fine tendrils twirl Star jasmine slowly around until they find something This sweetly scented climber is covered to grab onto. in white flowers. Vines recognize their own chemical signal so avoid strangling themselves. Gardeners often grow these fragrant flowers up a teepee of poles. Everlasting Showers of flowers pea hang from twining stems. The plant’s thorny eria stems can grow up to 39 ft (12 m) tall. Bougainvillea Wist Vines can be creepers or climbers. Thorny hooks Creepers grow and spread along the ground, while climbers clamber up Some creepers, such as jasmine, twirl their towards the sunlight. As these vines flexible stems around other plants to reach grow, they may curl around a tree, for the sky. Clematis plants do the same or up a wall or fence, adding colour but use long leaf stalks to wrap around 106 to the garden. their neighbors in order to climb upward. Bougainvillea hooks its thorns into surfaces to drag itself higher, while everlasting pea,

English ivy Flame vine Gripping roots Large, colorful Two leaflets Creepers and climbers flowers make this often share a forked tendril for climbing. climber popular with gardeners. Root clusters on the stem allow this vine to climb to a height of 98 ft (30 m). Forked, grasping tendrils ginia creeper Clematis Vir Sticky suckers Sticky-tipped tendrils grip the wall. TWINING STEMS The Plants cannot see so use their tendrils to find something to cling palm-shaped to. Some detect the shade of a nearby object, while others detect leaves turn chemical signals given off by other plants. bright red in fall. 1. Tendril extends 2. It revolves until an 3. Tendril wraps outward. object is detected. around the support. Virginia creeper, and flame vine produce fine tendrils 107 that seek out something to cling to. The stems of English ivy sprout clusters of fingerlike aerial roots that burrow into the crevices of the bark, wall, or fence the plant is climbing up. These powerful roots grip so hard, they are difficult to remove and can damage houses and smother trees.

Bursting buds ❯ Leaves and new stems Leaf is tightly folded inside the bud but sprout from buds that protect the soft, soon bursts out. delicate tissue from winter frosts. The new growth makes the bud burst open. Bud scales are tough and weatherproof. Flowering plants Norway maple Spring Summer As the weather gets warmer in spring, Long days of sunlight allow the tree to make leaves begin to sprout from buds on the lots of food, and the tree is thick with leaves branches. The green leaves use sunlight and yellow flowers, which are cross-pollinated to make food for the tree to grow and primarily by bees. When fertilized, the flowers produce flowers. will become fruits and seeds will form. What is Through the seasons a tree? A deciduous tree, such as this Norway maple, has a cycle of growth that follows the seasons. Of all the plants, trees are the biggest and live the longest. Instead of green stems, they have woody trunks, which usually divide into many branches. The woody tissue is very strong, allowing some trees to grow to incredible heights of 330 ft (100 m) or more. A network of roots anchors the tree to the ground 108 and draws up water and nutrients from the soil.

Fall Winter Trunk rings As the days get colder and shorter, the In the cold winter months, tree stops making food. The chlorophyll the branches are bare and the The tough outer bark that makes the leaves green begins to tree lies dormant, preserving protects the layer of break down, and they change from green its energy and water until the growing plant tissue to red and gold and fall from the tree. beneath it. following spring. Deciduous or evergreen? Wide, pale rings form in spring, while Leaves change Evergreen from green to red. tree narrow, dark rings form later in the year. Deciduous tree in fall The heartwood at the center is the oldest There are two main types of trees. Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter part of the tree. as they stop growing. In spring, they produce thin leaves that make food efficiently, so the tree grows fast in summer. Evergreen trees have tougher Cross section leaves that make food more slowly but stay on the tree all year long. of a tree trunk Every year, a tree’s trunk grows broader as a layer of woody tissue is added beneath the bark. The tissue grows fastest in spring, making softer wood, and more slowly late in the year, making harder wood. This forms annual growth rings, which are revealed if the tree is cut down. Types of forests Where there is enough rainfall for trees to grow in large numbers, they can form dense forests. The type of forest depends on the nature of the trees, which is determined by the climate. Rain forest In wet climates with no winter frosts, trees grow all year round to create rain forests. These are mostly found around the tropics. Coniferous The forests that grow in cold northern climates are mostly made up of tough evergreen conifer trees, such as pines and spruces. Deciduous Regions with long summers and short winters have forests of deciduous trees. They lose their leaves in fall but grow new ones in spring.

Types These tall trees can grow of trees to 147 ft (45 m) in height. Flowering plants Tall, columnlike Broad trees have small, egg-shaped cones. Stiff evergreen leaves grow in clusters at the ends of branches. Sugar maple Mediterranean cypress Circles of white elder flowers are used to flavor drinks. Broad Elderberry Dragon’s blood tree Autumnal Spreading yellow leaves all fall within a few days of each other. The bark of a dragon’s blood tree “bleeds” a blood-red sap when cut. Columnar Ginkgo Broad Trees come in all shapes and sizes, Most evergreen trees are conifers, nonflowering depending on the conditions they live in. plants such as the Mediterranean cypress Trees in leaf all year round, with old ones and Nordmann fir. However, some flowering constantly replaced by new ones, are called trees with tough leaves are evergreen, too. The evergreen. Trees that lose all their leaves eucalyptus, for example, has tough leaves with an 110 for part of the year are called deciduous. oily coating to keep in water, which hang vertically,

This long-lived tree Bright red berries can survive for more provide winter food than 1,000 years. for birds. English European Cocon ut palm oak holly Conical Palm Round Divided leaves Each needlelike allow harsh coastal leaf on this tree Slow-growing winds to whip through is up to 1 1⁄4 in branches extend (3.5 cm) long. without breaking about 1 1⁄2 in the tree. (4 cm) a year. Branched This umbrella- Joshua like tree can grow tree up to 33 ft (10 m) in height. The toxic leaves of this tree are harmless to koalas and possums. Mature trees can produce two crops of figs each year. Round Common fig Spreading Eucalyptus Nordmann fir Conical reducing exposure to the sun during the Australian the dry season, while the elderberry, ginkgo, 111 summers. Palms, such as the coconut palm, that sugar maple, and English oak grow in regions grow in wet, warm tropical climates are also with mild summers but lose their leaves to help evergreen. Deciduous trees shed their leaves for them survive cold winters. While holly lives in the part of the year, when conditions are too hot, cold, same climate as these trees, its leathery evergreen or dry. The common fig loses its leaves to survive leaves are able to tolerate the frosty winter.

Flowering plants Barking up the tree The red-brown bark can The green inner bark turns be up to 11 in (30 cm) thick. blue, purple, and orange when exposed to the air. Fibrous Vertical stripes The bright green bark with white (Coast redwood) (Manchurian striped maple) stripes is easily damaged in Unusual rectangular plates strong sunlight. make it easy to identify a persimmon tree’s bark. This smooth gray bark can be infected by deadly fungi. Spiny Cone-shaped spines protect this Plates Smooth greenish gray bark against animals. (Silk floss) (Persimmon) (American beech) Bark is the woody “skin” that protects Tree bark comes in many different patterns the trunks of trees and stems of shrubs, and textures and is vital to the health of forming a barrier against disease and a tree. The fibrous bark of the coast grazing animals, while keeping water redwood is extremely fire-resistant, while in. Bark is essentially dead tissue—a the spines on silk floss bark deter any tough layer formed as the living cells hungry animals from eating the young 112 underneath it die and are replaced. branches. Since all trunks need air to

Mottled Blotchy bark flakes off in (American sycamore) large chunks. Diamond-shaped pores join each (FPlinaek) ing other to form channels in older trees. English oak bark contains tannins, which are chemicals used in making leather. Diamond lenticels Horizontally In some broken ridges (English oak) Peeling strips (Rainbow eucalyptus) (White poplar) Aboriginal Australian Deep cracks Rough lenticels develop in the bark break up the shiny, stories, ghost gums as the tree ages. coppery brown bark. are living spirits. Thick outer bark peels off to reveal soft inner bark. Powdery, white bark reflects the heat of the strong Australian sun. Intersecting ridges Horizontal lenticels White (Crack willow) (Tibetan cherry) (Ghost gum) survive, trees such as white poplar and American sycamore. Trees can die if their 113 Tibetan cherry develop spongy cracks called bark is severely damaged. Mountain pine beetles lenticels in their bark to let air pass through. can introduce a fungus under the bark of a pine Some bark naturally splits as the tree grows, tree to weaken it, allowing their eggs to hatch revealing the inner layer beneath. This produces and the larvae to eat the living layer under the beautiful patterns on the Manchurian striped bark. The pine tree releases sticky resin to maple, the rainbow eucalyptus, and the defend itself against these insects.

STANDING TALL North America’s Pacific Coast is densely forested, with millions of conifer trees growing in the cool, wet conditions on the west side of the Rocky Mountains. Massive trees thrive in this climate, such as this old-growth redwood in California’s Bear Creek Watershed. In the distance is Rockefeller Forest, the world’s oldest continuous old-growth redwood forest, measuring more than 15 sq miles (40 sq km).

This tree may seem huge compared to its surroundings, photographs of it. However, we do know it lies somewhere in but the title for the world’s tallest tree goes to Hyperion Northern California’s Cascade Range, a part of the Redwood that stands at 380 ft (116 m)—or about twice the height National Park, which also houses Helios and Icarus, the of the Statue of Liberty in New York City. The exact second and third tallest trees. Despite its jaw-dropping height, whereabouts of Hyperion, a coastal redwood, remains the 600–800-year-old Hyperion was not found until 2006, as a closely guarded secret, and there are no confirmed it grows in a valley that hides its height from clear view.

Blossom time Laburnum Showers of yellow flowers give this tree its Pink flowers grow other name, “golden rain.” in clusters in spring, and produce purple seed pods. This upright petal Chinese guides pollinators redbud to the nectar. Mock orange The fragrant flowers of this shrub contain oils used in perfumes. These beautiful flowering NATURAL DYE branches spread out and provide shade in hot, In 2018, scientists created a natural tropical environments. dye using the bright red flowers of the royal poinciana tree. This dye can be used to color silk and cotton fabrics. Royal poinciana Blossom is the name for the flowers that Some trees, such as blackthorn and grow on trees and bushes, which often magnolia, begin to flower even before their produce colorful displays in spring and leaves unfurl, which may help pollinators find summer. Changes in temperature and day their flowers more easily. After pollination, length signal to the plant when to bloom. fruits such as mock oranges and apples, as 116 When pollinated, blossoms grow into fruits. well as seed pods of trees such as laburnum

A healthy apple These delicate tree can produce pink and white fruits for more blossoms produce than 100 years. fruit in fall. Each bud opens into Apple a five-petaled flower in early spring. Chinese fringe tree These feathery, Blackthorn snow-white flowers are mildy fragrant. Magnolia The blue flowers Thick petals help are produced for flowers withstand pollination by big, up to two months. clumsy beetles. Jacaranda Magnolia flowers have bloomed since the time of the dinosaurs. and Chinese redbud, can take many Chinese medicine. In Japan, festivals 117 months to develop. Although people are held in early spring to celebrate the usually grow flowering trees for their beauty of blossoming trees, particularly attractive flowers or edible fruit, some cherry and plum, with people coming blossoms, such as those of magnolia, from around the world to view the are also used in perfumes and traditional magnificent displays.

Living on air Bristly moss produces spores that can grow into new moss plants. St agfheornrn Orthotrichum moss These stiff leaves The undivided fronds are specially adapted grow up to 59 in to absorb moisture (150 cm) in length. from the air. aiTirllpalnadntsia Silvery leaves hang in chains. Bird’s nest fern Dense cushions of this moss grow in shady, damp areas. Spanish moss Fissidens moss Forked fronds like a deer’s antlers give this plant its name. Not all plants grow in soil. Some, known Mosses such as fissidens moss or as epiphytes, anchor themselves onto orthotrichum moss can often be other plants or tree trunks instead. seen growing on walls or tree trunks. These plants do not take nutrients from These tiny plants survive by storing their hosts, however; they absorb water water like a sponge. They then use and nutrients from the air and rain, or this water to make food. Spanish sometimes from the dead leaves that moss is not really a moss at all, but 118 collect around their base. a flowering plant. It is one of about

Necklace orchid Waterproof leaves come in many colors and collect pools of water at their center. Long strings of flowers have a sweet scent to attract insect pollinators. Frogs, insects, and Bromeliad even crabs can be found living in bromeliad pools. These yellow flowers resemble the golden gowns LIVING LAYERS of dancing ladies, giving this orchid its name. Rain forests are divided into four layers, each with its own unique set of plants and Male Dancing ladies orchid animals. Fungi living on the dark forest floor break down plant matter. Shrubs and bees attack bushes in the under canopy shelter small animals and predators in the shadow of a the orchid, mistaking full, leafy canopy, which is home to birds and climbing animals. Emergent trees it for a rival, and tower above all others, housing high fliers such as eagles and bats. pollinating it Emergent layer as they do so. Canopy Long strap The strap-shaped fern fronds grow up to 3 ft (1 m) long. Leaves are covered with a waxy layer to reduce evaporation. Under canopy Forest floor 650 plants known as air plants. They take their environment, producing 119 name from their ability to use their leaves to fronds that lie flat against the absorb water from the air around them. Many tree trunk to prevent them from drying out. epiphytic orchids grow in humid environments The crowns of fronds at the top of this plant such as rain forests. They collect moisture from and other epiphytic ferns, such as the bird’s the air, too, but use fleshy roots to do this, rather nest fern and the long strap fern, also than their leaves. The staghorn fern also collect water and falling leaves, which provide uses its roots to take in water from its humid much-needed nutrients for these plants.

STRANGLER FIG In Wat Mahathat, a After germinating, the seedling’s roots grow down the trunk of the tree, absorbing Buddhist monastery in nutrients from soil deposits on the branches. Once they reach the ground, they burrow Ayutthaya, Thailand, a strangler fig wraps around the head of a into the soil, helping the strangler fig to develop faster and send its shoots stretching broken Buddha statue. This type of fig starts life as a small seed higher for sunlight. Many roots wrap around the host tree, enclosing its trunk in a network dropped on a tree branch by an animal, such as a bird. that thickens and tightens as it grows, sometimes even killing the tree. Strangler figs grow over anything that gets in their way, including walls and entire houses.

The forest In temperate forests, plant life has to adapt floor to the four seasons. Flowers must shoot up Flowering plants early in the spring, before the trees start orCcalhiydpsogrowing leaves blocking the sunlight. Then plants that have evolved to live in the shade take over, such as ferns and mosses, surviving on the little light that filters through. Bell-shaped flowers These carpet forest floors in star-shaped western Europe in spring. flowers have a musky smell. Squill Wood Flower stems anemone are held above the leaves to Cushions of attract pollinators. moss can reach 4 in (10 cm) in height. Hosta The hairs attract insects Broom forkmoss Lady’s slipper for pollination, but this orchid does not produce These edible leaves orchid nutritious nectar. have a garlicky smell Wild garlic and flavor. The pouch- shaped petals force insects to brush past the yellow pollen above, aiding pollination.

The wood anemone is one of the first flowers trillium survives like this for up to 70 years. to emerge in early spring. Squill and wild garlic Enclosed by a thick green canopy of leaves, the soon follow, shooting up from underground bulbs forest floor is dark, cool, and damp throughout and soaking up sunlight with their long leaves the summer, ideal conditions for sword ferns and before the trees above burst into leaf. These plants mosses to grow. In autumn the leaves fall from are known as “spring ephemerals” because they the trees, insulating the earth in the colder spend just a few weeks in bloom before dying months and building up a thick layer back, ready for next spring. The large-flowered of matter to enrich the soil. Each pinna (leaflet) has Six tepals grow around the e-frliollwiuemred a lobe that sticks up at its anthers. The tepals curl back base, giving it the shape toward the stalk to advertise of a sword hilt. the flower to pollinators. rd fern Larg t Swo A striped bract surrounds and covers each flower spike. Fawn lily This plant is poisonous but, if cooked properly, its root can be made into bread. The three-petaled flowers first appear when this plant is 7–10 years old. Jack-in-the-pulpit Dense clumps grow slowly but can reach 3 ft (1 m) wide. Each leaf is no more than 1⁄3 in (9 mm) long. Pincushion moss

Bonsai Dense growth on top makes this a Each miniature apple favorite among is up to 2⁄5 in (1 cm) bonsai lovers. across, about one-fifth a the size of a regular crab apple. Flowering plants The Satsuki azale smallest bonsai grows just 2 in (5 cm) tall. Scots pine Bright red berries cover female trees throughout the winter. Japanese winterberry Crab apple These funnel-shaped flowers can range from under 4⁄5 in (2 cm) to 6 3⁄4 in (17 cm) across. This 18th-century Japanese Showers of purple print shows women examining flowers make wisteria a plant seller’s bonsai. a popular bonsai vine. Bonsai seller Japanese wisteria The word “bonsai” means “planted Although they usually reach a height of only in a container” and is the Asian art 5–10 in (13–25 cm), bonsai trees bear flowers of growing miniature trees. The small and fruit. Some species, such as the Japanese pot helps restrict growth, while the wisteria and satsuki azalea, are particularly branches are skillfully pruned to keep popular for their beautiful displays of flowers, the plant small and mimic the natural while others, including crab apples and dwarf 124 shape of the full-size tree. pomegranates, produce tiny fruits. Bonsai

PRUNING A BONSAI Chinese juniper Special scissors are used Bonsai to trim bonsai branches in order to make an attractive tree shape, while preventing the trees from growing too quickly. Dramatic shapes are created by pruning or twisting branches around wires, which are later removed. Fall leaves make a colorful display popular with bonsai enthusiasts. Japanese maple Pink, white, red, or purple lm granate blossoms usually bloom in Chinese e May, which is called “satsuki” Dwarf pome in Japanese—giving this tree its name. Rocks are often used to create dramatic bonsai designs. The branches and trunk of this bonsai have been trained to give it a windswept look. requires careful old, with centuries of careful pruning and 125 pruning of the shoots shaping by bonsai masters. With enough time and roots, and it takes skill and care, a bonsai tree can become extremely not to kill the trees in the process. The Chinese valuable. The most expensive bonsai ever sold elm bonsai is more likely to survive mistakes was in 2011. It had a price tag of 100,000,000 made by beginners. One Chinese juniper in Japanese yen, equivalent to around $1.3 million Japan has been proven to be about 1,000 years (£840,000).

Flowering plants What is a grass? Grasses are short plants with long, narrow leaves, jointed stems, and flowers that are almost always arranged in spikes. This group of plants first appeared on land more than 66 million years ago, evolving over time into the 12,000 species of grasses today. Grasses cover huge areas of land on every continent and are more widely spread than any other type of plant. Grass flowers Meadow foxtail flower Anthers poke out of the flowers and bob in the wind, releasing pollen grains. Growing point ❯ Grasses can survive continual grazing by Grasses produce flower spikes with many wild and farm animals because small flowers, which are wind-pollinated. their growing point is at the As they mature, each flower dangles its base of their stem, close to the anthers in the wind, allowing millions of soil. When nibbling animals pollen grains to be blown away to fertilize eat the leaves, they leave this the feathery, sticky stigmas of another growing point intact, allowing grass. Since grasses do not have to the plant to regrow easily. attract animal pollinators, their flowers have lost their colorful petals. 126

Leaf blade ❯ Many grasses Grass imposters have long, thin leaves Rush with parallel veins running This snowy woodrush has long, thin leaves down the length of each that may look like blade. Each new leaf those of a grass, but it is actually a rush and emerges from within the belongs to a related base of the older blade. family of plants. Seagrass These seagrasses live on the ocean floor, providing an important habitat and food source for a wide range of fish and other marine life. Sedge Sedges are wetland plants with grasslike leaves, but you can tell them apart from grasses and rushes by their triangular stems. Sweet vernal grass Grasslands Leaf sheaths grow at the Grassland habitats cover about a third of base of each grass leaf. all land on Earth. They are found in regions Wrapped around the stem, too dry to support a forest but too wet to be leaf sheaths prevent stems a desert. From African savannas to North from breaking and also American prairies to European meadows, protect the growing point. grasslands support a huge variety of wildlife around the world, such as the Grant’s gazelles Roots ❯ Grasses have very dense root systems that seen here. Wildfires often sweep across grasslands, encouraging thick grass hold the plant in place even when being tugged at by regrowth and removing tree seedlings. large grazing animals. These root clusters also hold the soil together, preventing erosion.

Types of When you think of grass, you might picture grasses a garden lawn, but there are thousands of very different species, including crops such The blue-gray leaves as rice and even bamboo. They may not be grow in clumps up to the most colorful plants, but they are some of the most important. Grasses grow in 7 ¾ in (20 cm) in height. habitats around the world, including Flowering plants deserts, mountains, and rain forests. Clumping bamboo Antarctic hair grass Blue fescue This tiny grass is one of two Grasslands flowering plants make up around native to Antarctica. one-third of all land on Earth. Divided flower stems look like a crow’s foot, giving this grass its name. Grasslike leaves grow from woody stems, unlike other grasses. Crowfoot grass

Although most grasses look similar, some their colors, such as the red leaves of the Types of grasses have unique features that make them stand Japanese bloodgrass and the blue-gray out. While bamboos grow woody stems foliage of the blue fescue. The red flower that allow some species to reach up to 160 ft spikes of the hair-awn muhly grass (50 m) in height, the Antarctic hair grass add a splash of color to gardens, while lives in such a harsh, cold climate that it grows many people grow pampas grass for only a few centimeters tall. Most grasses come their tall, feathery flower spikes, which in shades of green, but some are popular for blow in the wind. These fluffy flower TALL AND USEFUL tufts are popular with gardeners. Elephant grass can grow into a tall plant quickly, without needing much water or food. 13 ft (4 m) Thriving even in poor soil Hargersa-stas il conditions, African elephant grass is used as fodder for cattle and elephants. It is also planted to prevent soil erosion in dry or overgrazed lands. Scientists have explored the use of the Asian variety of this grass as a biofuel, burning it to produce electricity. S The flattened Flower spikes look like fluffy flower spikes are pink clouds. just 1⁄3 in (1 cm) long. pangle grass mHauihrl-yawgrnas Japanese bloodgra Soft flower s spikes look like gray bottle brushes. This tall grass can reach 9 3⁄4 in (3 m) in height. Oriental fountain grass Pamp ss as grass Bloodred leaf tips fade to bright green at the bottom.

Flowering plants Grasses Grasses produce the grains that and grains feed the world. Grasses with edible seeds or grains are known as cereal plants and have been cultivated for thousands of years. Today, cereals are harvested on a massive scale around the world. Sugarcane Oats are usually Grains crushed and made of rice into porridge. When ready Rice to harvest, sugarcane can be twice the height of a grown man. Oat grains This wetland plant is grown The sweet sap Sorghum in watery fields extracted from this Oat called paddies. stem is dried to Ears of wheat make cane sugar. hold up to 80 grains each. Drought-tolerant cereals are an Wheat grains important source of food in Africa. Sorghum grains Wheat Crystals of sugar

The most widely grown cereal plant is corn. and pasta. Barley, which comes fourth, is used Corn kernels are mainly used as cattle feed, or both for food and to make alcoholic drinks. Fifth turned into a liquid biofuel called ethanol. Next is sugarcane, a large grass grown for its sweet comes rice, an essential food crop for more than sap, which is extracted by crushing the stems. half of the people on the planet, especially in The syrupy liquid is evaporated until it is so Asia. Wheat, the third most important grain, is concentrated that it will harden when cooled, and usually ground into flour and used to make bread the resulting solid is ground up into sugar crystals. Grasses and grains Each thread, known Durum wheat as a silk, is attached to a separate kernel. The Protein-rich grains are total made into pasta. area used to Durum wheat grains grow corn is larger than the size of Germany. Corn kernels Barley grains Grains can be soaked, sprouted, and dried—a process known as malting—for extra flavor. Long cylindrical ears hold Barley up to 3,000 grains each. Rye Pearl milletThe grains areNutritious 131 a good source of grains are Corn protein and fiber. made into dark brown bread. Millet grains Rye grains

RICE TERRACES A rice farmer working on these spectacular, lush-green fields needs a good head for heights. The precisely stepped staircases, which rise almost vertically in some parts, are located about 174 miles (280 km) from Vietnam’s capital city, Hanoi. One of the world’s most widely consumed foods, rice is grown all over southeast Asia and is hugely important to the economy of many countries.

These layered rice fields in the Mu Cang Chai district of green to gold with the seasons. Growing rice is still hard northeastern Vietnam were carved out of the mountainsides work, even today. It is difficult to use machinery on such a hundreds of years ago. With simple hand tools, early farmers steep incline so work is done by hand. After planting, farmers labored to make use of every scrap of fertile land. Today, the are constantly weeding, and in the run up to harvest, the terraces produce much of the country’s rice. Covering about terraces are kept flooded with stream water carried by 4,900 acres (2,000 hectares), the plants change color from farmers down the mountains in bamboo pipes.

What is a fruit? Tasty bananas come Banana ready-wrapped in a A fruit develops from a plant’s fertilized flower. It tough protective skin. Bananas are a type encloses and protects the seeds while they develop, of berry, but most then helps to spread them. The sweet flesh of most Kiwi have been bred to fruits encourages animals—including humans— not contain seeds. to eat them, spreading their seeds in the process. Cabbage Flowering plants wberry Stra A ripe strawberry is bright red, and packed with vitamins and nutrients. Seed ❯ Most fleshy fruits, such as this kiwi, develop as a tasty package to hold the seeds. Fleshy fruits often change color as they ripen so that animals can spot and eat them, dispersing their seeds. What is a vegetable? Vegetables are any edible part of a plant except for the fruit. We eat fleshy roots, succulent stems, flowers, buds, and leaves. Because all these parts of the plant are making or storing food, they are rich in vitamins, which make them good food for us. Carrot Root ❯ A root vegetable is the underground part of the Leaf ❯ A leaf makes food and so plant. It can be the plant’s food store in the winter and contains energy and minerals. The contains starch, sugar, and vitamins. High in nutrients and fiber in leaves that makes them fiber, edible roots are an important part of a healthy diet. sturdy helps human digestion. 134

Ap Fruit or vegetable? ple Pear Brown pear seeds are Fig Figs are eaten fresh The thin red peel found in a central core, and dried. forms an attractive within the fleshy fruit. layer around the flesh, to attract animals. Fruit or vegetable? Any part of a plant we eat is either a fruit or a vegetable. Fruits develop from fertilized flowers, and contain seeds that are spread when they are eaten. Any edible part of the plant that is not a fruit is a vegetable. This can be a root, a stem, a leaf, or even the buds of developing flowers. Asparagus False fruits and vegetables We often use the terms “fruit” and “vegetable,” based on how we eat plants—in sweet or savory dishes—rather than how they grow. So, a sweet-tasting vegetable is sometimes called a fruit, while a savory salad fruit may be called a vegetable! Stem ❯ A stem transports food to and from Rhubarb is an example A tomato is an example of a false fruit. It is actually of a false vegetable. the roots of a plant and is full of minerals. It is actually a fruit. When stems are soft enough, they can be a stem vegetable. eaten as vegetables, raw or cooked. 135

Going underground These underground stems grow at the bottom of ponds. Arr Flowering plants Beet Dandelion owhead Parsnip This plant’s bitter roots are used to treat many illnesses. The white root The red juice turns purple when from beets is used exposed to sunlight. as a natural food coloring. Turnip Air channels form COLOSSAL CARROT a distinctive pattern. Heaviest carrot Cats 22 1⁄2 lb (Weight of two cats) (10.17 kg) The world’s heaviest carrot was grown by Christopher Lotus root Qualley of Minnesota, in 2017. It weighed in at This root 22 1⁄2 lb (10.17 kg)—around the same weight as becomes that of two cats! sweeter after winter frosts. Vegetables that grow underground Many underground vegetables, including can be stored for long periods of parsnips, beets, carrots, rutabagas, time, making them important food and daikons, are made of swollen roots, crops, especially when other but others store energy in different foods are scarce. The swollen roots ways. Arrowhead and taro plants store energy, which the plants use store energy in bulblike stems called to regrow in the spring—if they are corms, while lotus roots are 136 not eaten first! modified stems that grow

Taro This large root can grow up to 12 in (30 cm) long and is eaten as a winter food by people and cattle. Rutabaga R adish This underground stem is an important food in tropical regions Potato Colorful varieties are grown for their high of Africa and Asia. vitamin content. These peppery Cassava roots are eaten raw in salads Carrot This tropical root is used to produce flour and The knobbly can also be eaten tubers become as a vegetable. sweeter when left in the sun. Daikon Long white roots grow up to 23 1⁄2 in (60 cm) long and are a popular food in Asia. Oca These crunchy horizontally, called rhizomes. Potatoes and ocas are tubers made roots taste sweet from swollen stems and have spots called eyes from which and come in a new shoots can grow. Many root vegetables are vital food variety of colors. sources. Cassava, for example, can be grown in poor, dry soils and is a staple food in many parts of Africa. The dandelion is perhaps best known for its yellow 137 flowers, but its roots can be used to make tea, which is believed to have medicinal properties.

Soft fruits Ripening fruits change color from Goji white to red to purple. berry Black curr erry ant These oval berries Up to 25 red Mulberry have a sweet-sour taste berries are and are eaten dried. produced on This is a cluster each stem. of “drupelets”— Red currant mini fruits each with a seed inside. The fruits are delicious fresh or in a jam. Raspberry udberry The dark purple Cranberry sauce is berries are used to traditionally eaten with make jams and syrups. turkey at Thanksgiving Clo in the US. Cran Blackberry berry This hardy Lingonb plant can survive These amber- colored fruits are extreme cold. rich in vitamin C. The juicy, thin-skinned fruits we call Most soft fruits grow on bushes and shrubs, berries, with pulpy flesh and seeds rather but mulberries, Chinese bayberries, and than a stone, are also known as soft fruits. goji berries grow on trees. Cranberry bushes Most are sweet, some are sour, but all are unusual because they grow in bogs. are rich in vitamins. Wild berries have These are flooded before harvest, and been an important source of food for special machines called eggbeaters are 138 thousands of years. sent in to knock the cranberries from the

Vine leaves are Grapes Clusters of fruits edible, too, wrapped can contain up round savory fillings. to 300 grapes. Chinese bayberry Grapes trees can produce up to 220 lb (100 kg) of have been grown fruit in one summer. for making Chinese bayberry wine for more than 8,000 years. Dark blueberries grow up to 1⁄2 in (1.6 cm) across. Strawberry Blueberry 139 plants so they float away and can be skimmed from the surface of the water. Yellow seeds are In Scandinavia, cloudberries and actually tiny fruits lingonberries are mostly picked on a swollen stem. from wild bushes. Grapes hang in bunches from long vines and come to black. They are eaten fresh, in several different colors, from green made into wine, and dried into raisins and currants. Strawberries ripen on small, low-growing plants. The big, fat, juicy fruits we eat today have been cultivated from tiny, but delicious, wild strawberries the size of peas.

VOLCANIC VINEYARD Centuries ago, erupting volcanoes covered the Spanish island of Lanzarote in ash, ending traditional farming but creating a unique environment for grapevines. Although it may not look it, the volcanic ash in the wine-making region of La Geria is very fertile. This nutrition-rich soil combined with warm days and cold nights make this an ideal region for growing grapes.

There is not much rain on Lanzarote, but in La Geria’s bottom. The low, surrounding semicircular stone walls vineyards, an ingenious method of cultivating vines ensures protect the vines from the wind and help prevent the ground that every available drop of moisture reaches the growing from drying out. This technique has been used successfully plants. Each young vine is placed in a shallow individual pit. for many years. Around 10,000 vines grow in the La Geria Any rainfall or overnight dew is channeled down the sloping valley, producing red and white wines. The area is recognized walls of the pit to reach the roots of the vine nestling at the as a Protected Landscape.

herryC Stone fruits Plum Dried and Olive shriveled plums are known as prunes. Peach These red fruits usually grow in pairs on a single, short stem. Green and unripe, this Hard and bitter, olives fruit tastes like an apple are processed before eating, but then turns purple and or pressed for their oil. sweet like a date. The large, round seed makes up 80 percent of the berry’s interior. Fuzzy skin protects Jujube the easily bruised flesh of this fruit. Acai berry This flat, oval seed can grow up to 2¾ in (7 cm) long and is tricky to cut out. Mango The green, unripe fruit Almond These thin-skinned, firm, often fleshy can be eaten before the fruits, with a single, hard seed at the almond inside hardens. center, are known as drupes or, more commonly, stone fruits. Many have The sweet fruits of the hardy date palm have been cultivated from wild trees to been a vital source of food for desert peoples for 142 produce bigger, juicier fruits. thousands of years. Delicious fresh, they can also be dried and stored for longer periods of time. The sweet, juicy flesh of peaches is delicious and is eaten fresh, though some people don’t like

Dates Sloe ctarine These small, slightly sour fruits are used to make preserves and flavor spirits. Ne The hard, wrinkled stone protects an almond-shaped seed. Date These high-growing palms can fruits are picked with the help of ropes, ladders, or produce up to cherry-picker trucks. 310 lb (140 kg) This fragrant fruit is eaten both of fruit each fresh and dried. year. The pulp of this bitter fruit is used to make jams. Apricot Damson its fuzzy skin and prefer its smooth relative, the as almonds, are grown for their nectarine. Some stone fruits are not sweet but edible seeds rather than their flesh. sour—the sloe must be cooked up with lots of Some people do eat whole unripe sugar. The flesh of olives is hard as well as bitter. green almonds, which are fuzzy, But when crushed in a press, a greenish-gold crunchy, and tart, with a soft, oil can be extracted. Some stone fruits, such jelly-filled seed.

Juicy fruits Pomelo The pale flesh tastes Buddha’s hand like a sweet grapefruit. Blood orang This finger-shaped fruit smells like a mix of lemon and lavender. Orange e The bright red A regular-sized orange contains flesh gives this about one-third of a cup of juice. orange its name. Citrus fruits are a type of berry with a pulpy, Scientists believe that the dozens of citrus fruits juicy flesh, covered by a thick peel. They are available today can be traced back to just three widely eaten because of their tangy flavors ancestral plants, the pomelo, the mandarin and are rich in vitamins. Originally from orange, and the citron. Today, oranges make Asia, citrus fruits are now grown in up more than 50 percent of all citrus fruits 144 tropical countries around the world. produced worldwide. Their sharp, tangy

Lemon Lemon Citron The yellow outer layer, Key lime juice, which cures which is full of flavor, is called the zest. scurvy, became compulsory on British ships in 1795. The bright green peel turns yellow as the fruit ripens. The thick peel is used to make jams. umquat These bite-sized K fruits do not Kaffir require peeling. lime The thick, white aican tangelo A tangelo’s skin is inner layer is loose and easy to peel. called the pith. Jam These knobbly fruits are used to make citrus-scented perfumes. The large fruits can grow up to 5 in (15 cm) across. Grapefruit flavor comes from the high content of citric acid, segments inside are juicy. The exception to this 145 which is highest in lemons and limes. Unlike rule is the kumquat, which has a sweet peel most citrus fruits, the Buddha’s hand has little and a bitter center. The Jamaican tangelo is edible flesh and is instead used in perfumes and a natural mix of an orange and a pomelo, with as an offering in Buddhist temples. The peel of very juicy, sweet-tasting flesh and a wrinkled, most citrus fruits is tough and bitter, while the fragrant peel.

Tropical fruits The spiky skin This star-shaped protects tangy fruit comes in sweet yellow flesh. and sour varieties. Each fruit Star fruit contains around 250 edible seeds. Pineapple This sweet fruit is usually eaten The world’s largest tree-borne fruit, like an apple. it can grow up to 36 in (90 cm) long. Jackfruit Passion fruit Persimmon The long, soft spines turn red or Sweet, fleshy fruit contains spicy-tasting yellow when the seeds that can be used as fruit is ripe. a substitute for pepper. This giant fruit, packed full of smaller fruits inside, can weigh up to 121 lb (55 kg). Papaya Tropical fruits come in a wide range While all the tropical fruits shown here are of shapes, sizes, and flavors. These commonly eaten raw and whole, many are also colorful fruits grow in warm, wet used in a range of other ways. Pineapples regions but are now shipped all and passion fruits are often juiced, while over the world where they have rambutans and guavas are made into jams. 146 become very popular. The white fruits inside jackfruits can be used

Each Speckled flesh tastes faintly rambutan of kiwi fruit. tree produces more than 6,000 fruits in a year. Rambuta n Inside the fruit oo Dragon Lych fruit Hairy, brittle skin encloses edible white flesh inside. Chik The juicy flesh has a grainy texture and tastes like caramel. Vivid pink flesh Durian tastes like a mix of pear and strawberry. Guava Cream-colored flesh tastes like sweet custard with a hint of onion. White segments are sweet and tangy. Inedible skin Mangosteen ee This perfumed fruit encases a large, oval-shaped seed. in baking, and their stringy texture has made lychees are poached in syrup to be eaten with 147 them popular as an alternative to meat in ice cream. The smelly durian has a unique vegetarian and vegan cooking. Asian dishes flavor that some love and others hate. Known are sometimes sweetened using star fruits as the king of fruits, durians are used to make and papayas. Persimmons are used to add a huge variety of sweet treats, including candies, flavor to smoothies and cold desserts, while cakes, and ice cream.

Magnificent The striped fruits are melons small enough to fit in the Large, flat-bottomed, palm of your hand. with a sweet, slightly spicy Flowering plants flavor, some consider this Nicknamed “little the king of melons! mouse watermelon,” this grape-sized Mexican fruit tastes like a cucumber. Tigger melon Wat The flesh of a watermelon is a thirst-quenching 92 percent water! melon ermelon Cuca Crenshaw melon Gac This rare Indian melon has fragrant flesh and stripes like a beach ball. When ripe, this melon has Kajari melon spiny red skin, yellow flesh, and slimy red seeds. Melons are the sweeter relatives of gourds, These juicy fruits originally came from cucumbers, and pumpkins, and they come Africa and the Middle East but are enjoyed in all shapes, sizes, tastes, and colors. There all over the world today. They grow on vines are thousands of varieties, but they all grow and have a tough skin, and there are two main best where the climate is warm and there is types—sweet melons and watermelons. Sweet 148 plenty of water. melons include honeydew, charentais,

HYDROPONIC MELONS Magnificent melons Hydroponics is a method of growing plants indoors in a liquid full of nutrients. It can produce more food than crops grown in soil because of the controlled environment, in which temperature, light, and humidity can be regulated. This is a good method for growing melons, which need a lot of water. Warty, unripe fruits Bitter The orange flesh Yubari King melon are used in many melon is a good source Asian dishes. of vitamins. Sweet, pale Charentais Considered a rare green flesh is melon treat, just two of these enclosed within fruits sold for $28,000 a thick, waxy rind. (£21,500) in Japan in 2016. w Jellylike flesh tastes like a cross Honmeyedloen between a banana and a cucumber. This thin-skinned fruit can be eaten whole—rind and all. Korean melon Santa Claus melon This melon takes Horned melon its name from the are related. The most commonly grown melon fact that it keeps well, is the watermelon. It’s also the heaviest. An almost until Christmas! average specimen is about 22 lb (10 kg), but the record-breaking biggest weighed in at Kajari, Korean, tigger, Santa Claus, 350 lb (159 kg)—that’s equal to the weight 149 Yubari King, and most of the other melons of an adult male panda! shown above. Even the odd-looking horned melon, an important source of food and water in the Kalahari Desert of Namibia, and the prickly gac from southeast Asia,

A bit nutty Almond These edible Thuarzkeislnu Pistach seeds are packed Hazelnuts h with fiber, protein, t and healthy fats. acadamia Frilly husk M covers all but the tip of the nut. io The shells of these large nuts are the hardest among all nuts. The shell changes color English w from green to beige as the seed ripens, opening with a pop. alnut Coconut The two halves of the wrinkly fruit are separated by a partition. TRUE VS. FALSE NUT A true nut is a hardened fruit containing one seed. False nuts develop inside fruits, and are more like the core of an apple. This shell is a This is a seed and fruit’s fleshy body not the entire fruit. that happens to be hard. Hollow seeds are Acorn (true nut) Brazil nuts (false nut) creamy white with a Nuts have been eaten by humans for thousands clear liquid inside. of years. Their high fat and protein contents make them a nutritious food. They do not rot or True nuts, such as chestnuts, acorns, perish quickly, so early humans could store them and hazelnuts, are hard fruits containing a for the winter months. Many culinary nuts are seed. Many of the nuts we eat are actually the seeds of fleshy stone fruits similar to plums, the seeds of fruits, or false nuts. To avoid confusion between the two, all edible nuts 150 are called culinary nuts.

Cashew Cashew stalks swell as the fruit ripens. Hollow where nuts Cashew nuts A toxic resin in were cracked and the cashew shell can irritate the skin. ground with a stone by ancient people about nut 10,000 years ago. Peanut Brazil The edible seed Prehistoric nutting stone Extra-hard shell can is covered by a thin, be cracked open by birds reddish brown seed coat. These wrinkled nuts have a buttery flavor. with very tough beaks. Sweet chestnut ne nut Pi Pecan A spiny sheath Stubby pine protects up to three nuts can be developing nuts. up to 3 in (8 cm) long. including almonds, pistachios, coconuts, containing up to four nutlike seeds. Since they 151 English walnuts, pecans, and cashews, while grow beneath the soil, they are also known as pine nuts are seeds found inside pine cones. groundnuts. Of the nuts shown here, hazelnuts Peanuts are the strangest so-called nut. Once and sweet chestnuts are the only “true” nuts. pollinated, peanut flowers push a stalk into the Their hard shells are the flesh of the fruit, while soil to produce an underground bean pod the part we eat is the seed.

Eat your The red leaves give greens! this plant its other Flowering plants name, red chicory. Savoy Raw leaves are often added to salads. cabbage These fibrous, wrinkly Lettuc e leaves keep their shape when cooked. Radicchio Peppery leaf ard adds a spicy flavor to salads. Brussels sprouts Rainbow ch Arugula Leafy greens contain vitamin K, which helps wounds heal. Small, round These colorful plants are leaf buds resemble packed with vitamin K and baby cabbages. other essential nutrients. Almost 2,500 plants are known to have leaves you can eat, but some taste better than others. While many leafy vegetables are eaten raw in salads, others are cooked into a wide variety of dishes around the world. Packed with nutrients, these edible leaves come in many colors and shapes and form an essential part of a healthy diet.

Eat your greens!Red cabbage Kale The crunchy leaf stalks can be eaten raw or stir-fried. Bok choy The bitter leaves become sweeter after a frost. Spinach The leaves of the red cabbage Tightly packed are sweeter and tougher than ball of leaves those of the white cabbage. Watercress These peppery leaves grow both on land and in streams. These delicate GIANT CABBAGE leaves lose water Endive and shrivel up when cooked. Heaviest cabbage Children (138 1⁄3 lb/62.7 kg) (Weight of two children) Inner leaves are The heaviest cabbage ever grown was a whopping pale because they 138 1⁄3 lb (62.7 kg), the average weight of two young receive less sunlight. children. It was grown in Alaska in 2012. For thousands of years, people have cultivated Each was bred by humans for bigger leaves, 153 leafy vegetables to produce new varieties that more leaf buds, thicker leaf stalks, or different give better harvests and more interesting flavors. colors. The vibrant rainbow chard and The results of these gradual changes can be radicchio plants seen today are also a result clearly seen in the differences between of careful selection by breeders over time. vegetables like Brussels sprouts, savoy The crisp lettuce, too, was once a weed with cabbage, kale, red cabbage, and broccoli, prickly leaves and stems and was grown all of which are the same species of plant. by the ancient Egyptians for its oily seeds.

Peas and Lima beans beans Flowering plants These pale beans Winged Four frilly wings Each small have a buttery beans run along the length pod contains texture and flavor. of each edible pod. two circular seeds. Blacpke-aesyed Fava beans Lentils are These flattened rich in vitamins beans grow to 1 in and minerals. (2.5 cm) in length. Lentils Up to 14 beans are Adzuki beans produced per pod. Runner beans Pink beans or young seed pods are both popular side dishes. CHICKPEAS GALORE Chickpeas The Great Pyramid Its distinct black spots 13.3 million tons give this seed its name. (Weight of two pyramids) The world produced 13.3 million tons of chickpeas in 2016, Short pods most of which was grown in India. This harvest weighed twice contain two or as much as the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, known to weigh three edible seeds. 6.5 million tons. Chickpeas Peas, beans, and lentils are types of Humans started farming pulses because their seeds known as pulses. They are rich in seeds can be easily dried and stored for when proteins, fiber, and nutrients and have food is scarce. Lentils are one of our oldest been eaten by humans around the world crops, with archaeological evidence showing for thousands of years. Today, India is that humans ate them more than 13,000 years the biggest grower and consumer of ago in Greece, while 7,500-year-old chickpeas 154 pulses, particularly lentils. have been found in excavations in Turkey.

These small dried beans come in many different colors. Peas Tepary beans Around six to seven round peas are usually produced in each pod. Borlotti beans The red speckles “Pulse” disappear when Mung this bean is cooked. comes from the beans Soybeans These tiny beans are Latin puls, often cooked with sugar in Asian baked goods. meaning “thick gruel, porridge, or mush.” The white flowers of the snow pea usually self-pollinate. Snow peas A scar on the seed lets water in, allowing it to germinate. Unripe pods Today, we eat the fresh green seed pods Drought-resistant are eaten raw of winged beans, runner beans, and tepary bean plants can or in a stir-fry. snow peas, as well as the seeds themselves. Fava beans, lima beans, and borlotti survive very dry conditions and thrive in beans also have tasty protein-filled seeds. hot countries like their native Mexico. It is Soybeans can be used to feed farm animals, important to cook all beans before eating make oil, and produce foods such as tofu. because they contain proteins that can be harmful if not destroyed by heat.

All squashed up! Flowering plants This stripy squash Green pumpkin Edible seeds, held inside bright yellow can grow up to flesh, are a good 19 1⁄2 in (50 cm) long. source of zinc. Cushaw pumpkin A hooked neck gives this warty yellow squash its name. Csrqouoaksnheecsk The round fruits change color from green to orange as they ripen. Pumpkin PLUMP PUMPKIN Heaviest Hatchback car pumpkin 2,624 lb (1,190.5 kg) The world record for the heaviest pumpkin ever grown was in 2016 for a fruit weighing 2,624 lb (1,190.5 kg), around the same weight as a hatchback car. Although they are typically eaten as Almost all species of squash originally come vegetables, squashes are actually the from Central and South America but are now fruits of creeping vine plants that belong grown around the world, particularly in India and to the gourd family. There are many China. These large and fleshy fruits are rich in types of squashes, and they come in vitamins. The vitamin content is particularly high 156 lots of curious shapes. in squashes with orange and yellow flesh, such

The fibrous skeleton of a The teardrop-shaped dried and peeled luffa can be fruits taste like chestnuts used with soap and water as and are popular in Japan. a bath sponge. The green skin is a great source of fiber. Dried luffa This fruit’s skin Hubbard squash Cucumber turns bitter once the luffa grows longer than 4–4 3⁄4 in (10–12 cm). Luffa Thick necks These giant do not contain squashes can weigh seeds so yield up to 39 1⁄2 lb (18 kg) a lot of flesh. but are much tastier when smaller. Blue Hubbard Hulusi flutes are squash traditional Chinese instruments made of Butternut squash a gourd and three Long necks bamboo pipes. can stretch Gourd to more than 35 in (90 cm). Tromboncino Pattypan Shaped like a flying squashes saucer, these fruits are a slightly sweeter version of a zucchini. as green pumpkins and Hubbard squashes. raw or pickled. Edible pattypan squashes are 157 Most of these fruits are cooked and eaten as popular fall decorations, while other squashes savory dishes such as soups and stews, but with hard skins, known as gourds, can be dried some sweeter varieties, including pumpkin and used to make everyday items such as jars, and butternut squash, are also baked into bottles, or even musical instruments, including cakes and pies. Cucumbers are typically eaten maracas, flutes, and drums.

PUMPKIN BOAT RACE Paddling giant pumpkins for canoes, contestants race around a lake at the Tualatin Pumpkin Regatta in Oregon. Held every fall, such events are hugely popular not just in the US but also countries including Canada and Germany. Pumpkins are easily converted into boats, since they are already partly hollow inside, making it a simple task to carve out space for a rower to sit inside.

Developing from star-shaped, yellow flowers, the bigger in a variety of other holidays and festivals. American families varieties of pumpkins can swell rapidly to enormous sizes— gather every year for Thanksgiving, which is famous for its some measure more than 13 ft (4 m) around the middle and pumpkin pie. At Halloween, on October 31 each year, children weigh 992 lb (450 kg). In the Tualatin race, competitors in many countries carve out pumpkins to look like scary wearing costumes and life jackets paddle their pumpkins or funny faces, then put a candle inside to give them an 295 ft (90 m) and back. Pumpkins are also the main attraction eerie glow, to frighten off evil spirits.

Bulbs, stems, Onion and stalks Flowering plants When cut, these fleshy bulbs Car doon release a chemical that makes your eyes sting and water. Bark is stripped from the trunk to reveal the crunchy vegetable inside. Harvesting palm trunks Heart of palm Leaf stalks are eaten after removing the Rhubarb spiny leaf blades. Celeriac The thick stem tastes Asparagus Fleshy leaf stalks are like celery and can reach often stewed with sugar up to 6 in (15 cm) across.Leek and eaten in desserts. Spears of OVERSIZED ONION asparagus emerge from the In 2014, the largest ever onion was grown in the UK. The earth in spring. ginormous bulb weighed 18 3⁄4 lb (8.5 kg), approximately the same weight as a pug dog. Largest onion Pug The cylindrical bulbs turn white underground. Many plants make food in the Bulbs, such as leeks, onions, warmer months and then store it and garlic, are made up of fleshy in their bulbs, stems, and stalks. leaves, while celeriac, asparagus, This makes these vegetables a and kohlrabi are swollen valuable food source for the winter stems that are tastiest eaten months, and humans have eaten when young and tender. 160 them for thousands of years. Other vegetables,

The feathery leaves, swollen stem, and seeds all taste like licorice. Garlic Up to 20 cloves of garlic make up each bulb. Swollen stems taste like a sweeter version of broccoli. Kohlrabi Water chestnuts are grown underwater in flooded fields called paddies. Water The crunchy chestnut underground stem is often eaten These conical, tender in Chinese dishes. shoots of the bamboo plant are widely used in Asian cooking. The salty stems of this coastal plant are often eaten with fish. Bamboo Samphire Fennel shoot plant. However, young bamboo shoots contain natural toxins, which must be including rhubarb and cardoons, are the removed by boiling in water. Hearts of 161 leaf stalks of the plant, although the leaves palm are harvested from the trunks of themselves are not edible. The enlarged base several types of palm trees. Samphire is of fennel is made of both swollen stems and an asparagus-like plant that grows in coastal leaf stalks. The growing tips of many different areas. Its stems can be eaten raw or boiled. types of bamboo are eaten as bamboo shoots, but harvesting them does not harm the mature

LIVING WITH PLANTS

Living with plants Plants and people The earliest people were hunter-gatherers, always on the move searching for food such as meat, berries, and seeds. Then around 12,000 years ago, the first farming began in the Fertile Crescent, a region in the Middle East. Here, people settled down and learned to sow, harvest, and store crops— the ancestors of wild grasses—and domesticate animals. How plants have changed Sowing seeds ❯ For thousands of years, people Humans have cultivated many plants have sowed seeds by hand. Here, as the man since farming began. Teosinte, an ancient drives the plow, the woman follows behind wild relative of corn, bore just a few sowing the seeds. hard kernels. Farmers noticed that some teosinte plants produced more kernels and with a softer texture so planted these the next season. Over time, this selective farming method led to the large cobs we eat today. A hard coat makes the few kernels tough to eat. Teosinte Corn

Modern farming methods Other ways people use plants Not only have the plants we farm changed, but modern agricultural Medicine machines help us sow, grow, and harvest crops more easily and From headaches to quickly than ever before. Over the centuries, the population of the cancer, more than 50,000 world has exploded and continues to grow. Without modern farming plants around the world methods, billions of people would go hungry. are used to treat diseases. To harvest a field using Combine harvester Cosmetics a machine, the entire Many plant-based chemicals that are fragrant or moisturizing crop must mature at the are used in cosmetics such same speed and reach as shampoos and perfumes. a similar height. Furniture Farming in ancient Egypt Trees provide all the lumber used to make furniture. Forests In ancient Egypt, farming began along the banks of the must be carefully managed to Nile River. Every summer the river flooded the land, replace the trees that are used. leaving fields watered and rich in nutrients. Here the ancient Egyptians grew staple foods, such as wheat Paper and barley, as well as a variety of fruits and vegetables. Most paper comes from trees. Wood chips are mixed with water to make a pulp, which is flattened and dried into thin sheets. Building materials Lumber is also a popular building material for houses because it is strong, insulating, and environmentally friendly. Clothes The seed fibers of cotton and stem fibers of flax, hemp, and bamboo are often used to make fabrics. Musical instruments The woods of some trees can produce deep, rich sounds and have been used for centuries to make musical instruments. Cattle-drawn plow ❯ The first plows were pulled by people. The ancient Egyptians were the first to domesticate cattle and use them to pull heavier plows to cut tracks in the soil for sowing the seed.

The spices of life The young, green Cumin berries turn brown once dried in the sun. Each seed pod Dried seeds releases a single cumin seed when dried. Turmeric Allspice Dried berries These seeds have a nutty flavor and are common in Asian and Middle Eastern cuisines. cPrhai Sesame Dried seeds WasabiFiery green wasabi sauce is This red fruit contains eaten with sushi Underground capsaicin, a chemical that in Japan. stems, or gives chiles their spicy heat. Paste rhizomes, are rie ifleirse ground into bright Star anise yellow powder. Dried fruits The star-shaped fruit tastes like licorice. Fresh and dried turmeric Without spices—the dried seeds, fruits, roots, and bark of plants—our food would be much less tasty. For thousands of years, people have been adding spices to their cooking to flavor, color, and preserve their food. Some spices, such as turmeric and ginger, are used as health remedies, too.

Unripe fruits are cooked and dried into peppercorns. Dried seeds Dried fruits The spices of life Black pepper Cubelike seeds are often used in Indian cooking. Fenugreek These tiny black Peppercorns seeds are ground to make a hot sauce. are the world’s most Dried seeds commonly traded spice. Each droopy seed pod can grow up to Each seed pod 6 in (15 cm) in length. contains about a dozen cardamom seeds. Dried Green seed pods cardamom The red, outer covering around this seed is used to make another spice called mace. Vanilla Mustard Ginger Dried seeds Dried Nutmeg seed pods The fragrant red The inner bark of stigmas are harvested the cinnamon tree is harvested and cut carefully by hand. into small sticks. Harvesting cinnamon Underground Saffron stems have a Cinnamon sticks hot, spicy flavor. Many spices come from tropical plants from East route to India. Instead, he found chile 167 Asia. Our appetite for their flavors makes them peppers, which he brought back to Europe. highly valuable, and it was the demand for spices Today we take for granted the exotic ingredients that drove European explorers and traders to sail in our kitchen pantries. We can’t imagine not the globe in search of precious supplies in the having pepper on the table, a hot dog without 15th and 16th centuries. The Italian explorer mustard, or ice cream without vanilla. The Christopher Columbus reached the Caribbean most expensive spice in the world is saffron, Islands while trying to find a new spice trade which is worth more than gold by weight.

Helpful herbs Flat-leaf p Living with plants Chewing these arsley leaves can help Curly parsley freshen breath Thymeafter eating garlic. Leaves have In German These fragrant a strong taste leaves were once given and in ancient folklore, places to knights before battle Greece and Rome were fed where thyme to inspire courage. to chariot horses to give grows wild are said them strength. to be blessed MUMMIFICATION by fairies. In ancient Egypt, people who died were mummified Coriand er to preserve their bodies. After cleaning and The leaves are The aromatic embalming the body most well known as leaves have a tart, of a dead person, it was the dried herb used lemony flavor. wrapped in linen bandages, on pizza toppings. along with herbs such as thyme and mint. The herbs’ Oregano fresh and fragrant scents were Using herbs dates back to ancient considered sacred. times. In ancient Greece, eating thyme was believed to cure poisoning, while Herbs are plants that are used to rosemary was thought to help memory, flavor food, give perfume its smell, and scholars used to put rosemary in or provide medicinal qualities. Some their hair to help them during exams. have fragrant leaves or flowers that can be eaten fresh. Others are woody 168 and added to cooking or used dried.

Spicy leaves taste like Dill licorice and are used in Asian cooking. Helpful herbs Thai basil Dill seeds are used as a spice. In the past, these hairy, gray-green leaves were used to ward off evil. Mint These delicate, feathery leaves are often eaten with seafood. These leaves are used in Dill leaves toothpaste and sweets. Chives Rosemary The leaves are used for flavoring food. Sage Needlelike rosemary The hollow, leaves grow on woody tubular stems taste like onion—and the plants that can reach up to 7 ft (2 m) tall. flowers do, too! In the Middle Ages, herb gardens were common in Modern science has proven some of the European monasteries: monks grew sage as a qualities of herbs—mint oil is known to remedy and also to clean their teeth. The plant’s kill mosquito larvae, for example. Other scientific name, Salvia, comes from the Latin for ideas are based on superstition, such as “I am well.” Oregano is also healing. In Chinese the medieval practice of drinking dill tea medicine, it is used to help digestive problems. to repel a witch’s curse.

Living with plants Plant products Plants provide many of the materials Fruit ❯ The large, smooth we use every day. From tree trunks we harvest timber to build houses, wood fruits of the coconut palm to turn into paper, and resins to make contain a seed known as the varnish. Dyes can be made from berries coconut. It has a hard, hairy and leaves, and textiles from plant fibers. shell and edible white flesh. Some plants have many uses. In Malaysia, for example, the coconut palm is called the “tree of a thousand uses” because almost every part of this tree is useful. Coconut water, the liquid found inside the immature seed, is a delicious drink that is rich in nutrients. Utensils, such as this Ropes can be made Oil is extracted from cup, can be carved from coir, the fibers the white flesh for from coconut shells. of the coconut husk. use in cooking. Logs of coconut timber are often used in construction because they do not decay easily. Musical instruments, Trunk ❯ Coconut palms can grow up such as this Hawaiian pahu drum, are made to 98 1⁄2 ft (30 m) tall. Their slender, from coconut timber. flexible trunks, which have a ringed pattern, allow them to bend rather than break in strong winds. 170

A male flower opens, sheds pollen, and falls off within a day. Flower ❯ Coconut flower stalks Sugar is made from the sweet sap in the stalks contain spikes growing from a of the flower buds. fleshy stem. Male flowers grow at the tops of the spikes, while female ones Other plants and their products grow at their base. Both types of flowers produce nectar to attract insects. Cpaolcmonut Cotton White fibers surround the seeds of the cotton plant. In the wild, these fibers drift off in the wind, carrying the seeds to new places to grow. The fibers can be removed from the seeds and spun into threads to make textiles. Brooms are Thread made from the stiff, dried midribs Hemp of coconut leaves. This was one of the first plants to be used for clothing. The long fibers that make up the stem of the plant are used to make threads that can be woven into fabrics or twisted into string. String Coconut leaves Cork oak can grow up to The waterproof outer 6 ft (1.8 m) wide. bark of the cork oak tree is used to make stoppers for bottles, Cork Layer of bark floor tiles, and many stopper has been other household removed. objects. The bark grows slowly and is harvested once a decade. Leaf ❯ Mature coconut palms have Baskets can be Rubber made by weaving The milky sap of the around 35 leaves, each of which together the leaflets rubber tree is harvested grows from a single bud at the top of coconut leaves. by cutting a line into its of the tree. Coconut leaves can trunk and collecting the grow up to 19 3⁄4 ft (6 m) in length. liquid that drips out. When set, rubber is an elastic material used to make gloves, shoe soles, and tires. Tire

SHRINKING FOREST Mist rises in the hot air above a mountain rain forest known as the Leuser Ecosystem, on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. Dense with trees pushing up through the rain forest layers, the tallest rise 150–200 ft (45–60 m) to emerge above the canopy. This unique habitat is the last place where Sumatran orangutans, tigers, elephants, and rhinoceroses coexist in the wild.

Tropical rain forests cover around 6 percent of the world’s hydroelectric dams, and farming. Increase in demand for land, yet produce 40 percent of all oxygen and are often lumber and wood pulp for paper has led to a rise in illegal called the lungs of the Earth. The Leuser Ecosystem covers logging. Human activity is putting many of the species of around 10,100 sq miles (26,300 sq km), about the size of plants and animals in the region, which are not found Massachusetts. However, rain forest cover in Indonesia is anywhere else in the world, at risk of extinction. It also rapidly decreasing to make room for palm oil plantations, threatens the health of the whole planet.

Ylang-ylang Natural beauty Henna Hand decorated Henna leaves are crushed with henna before they can be used as hair Sandalwood dye or to decorate hands and feet for special occasions. This scented paste is made from powdered sandalwood and is used as a skin cleanser. Cucumber extract Perfume The yellow-gold has soothing properties oil is, in fact, a and is used widely in liquid wax made skin care products. from seeds. Jojoba Waxy yellow Cucumber flowers have an exotic fragrance. For thousands of years, people have used Many different parts of plants are used to plant products to make themselves look make beauty products. Ylang-ylang and and smell good. Floral fragrances and lavender flowers each contain scents that can plant-based potions are still big business be distilled for use in perfumes. It is extracted today, with many people preferring to use by steaming. Sandalwood is just that—the 174 natural products rather than artificial ones. aromatic, oily inner wood of a tree, which has

Nut butter Fatty seeds are used to make shea butter, a popular moisturizer. Shea Lavender Dried cocoa Cocoa Dried flowers are beans used to extract oil. This thick, The fragrant oil has fleshy leaf has a soothing, healing qualities. gel-like sap inside. Cocoa butter, Goats Argan made from the crushed insides climb argan Oil extracted from the seed of cocoa beans, nourishes skin, hair, and nails. is melted to make trees to eat the fruit body creams. and disperse the seeds in their droppings. Clear leaf sap is added to many skin care products for its soothing properties. Body scrub mixed with argan oil Inside an aloe vera leaf Bath bombs infused with eucalyptus oil nourish hair and soothe the skin. Aloe vera Eucalyptus bath bombs Eucalyptus natural antiseptic and healing qualities. While the to a paste, release a strong orange-brown dye. 175 seeds of the shea nut, kernels of the argan fruit, The sap inside the thick spiky leaves of the aloe and cocoa beans must all be roasted in order to vera plant is not only a soothing gel for burns release their rich oils, the seeds of the jojoba but also has moisturizing properties. Cleopatra, plant can simply be crushed. It is the leaves of the queen of ancient Egypt, attributed her great the henna plant that, when dried and mashed beauty to her use of aloe vera!

Plants of the world Living with plants Australian postage This 100-yen coin shows The blue of this national stamps have featured cherry blossoms that are flower is used on Estonia’s its national flower—the flag to represent the country’s fluffy golden wattle. celebrated in Japan each year in the spring festival hanami. sea, sky, and lakes. CattleyBarazoil rchid Glory lily Zimbabweerry blossom Japan Golden wattle Ch Australia orea These huge flowers can grow up to 8 in (20 cm) across. Cornflower Estonia poppy This wildflower This colorful HimalayanBhbultaune from Bhutan has flower, also known distinctive yellow or amber anthers. as the flame lily, belongs to a plant Coffee plant that is protected Ethiopia in Zimbabwe. The arabica coffee plant originates in Ethiopia. The maple leaf associated with Canada symbolizes unity, peace, and tolerance. Ros e of Sharon South K This is a wreath of Pakistan’s national flower, the sweet-smelling jasmine. Maple This flower is also known Jasmine Pakistan as mugunghwa, which means Canada “eternal blossom that never fades.” Countries around the world often have Some countries choose a beautiful local a special connection to particular plants, flower to represent their nation, such as rare or common. Many use flowers or the showy cattleya orchids of Brazil trees as national symbols, often because and the glory lily of Zimbabwe. Australia these plants are culturally or spiritually observes Wattle Day on September 1 to 176 important to the people living there. celebrate the golden wattle that grows

According to legend, The bell-shaped tea was first made flowers of this from tea leaves in Chilean vine China in 2737 bce. bloom between March and May. Tea China Iris France Plants of the worldChilean Lavender Portugal bellflower Rose England The rose was a symbol of royalty in England Chile Purple lavender and later became the flowers grow on spikes national flower. This flower inspired the fleur-de-lis symbol, used and appear across The cone-shaped by the kings of France. Portugal in the summer. center holds the growing seeds. In The lotus is the sacred symbol of India, and Portugal, represents purity and grace. lavender was believed to ward off evil spirits. Lotus India across southern Australia as a sign of spring. The features on the Canadian flag. The country that 177 national flower of Bhutan, the Himalayan blue comes to mind when you say “tea” is China, the poppy, is so rare that it was once believed to be first to brew the hot drink from the plant’s leaves— a myth and is called the “blue yeti.” The national and the world’s biggest producer today. In India, tree of Canada, the syrup-producing maple tree, the national flower is the lotus. Hindu gods are is found in each of its provinces, and its leaf often shown standing on this sacred flower.

Plant science Living with plants Although people have always relied on plants, the science 1600s of plants—known as botany—has been studied for only around 2,500 years. Early scientists described the Hydroponics, a method of medicinal properties of plants, while later researchers growing plants in a nutrient- investigated them to learn how they survive and thrive. filled liquid rather than in 350 bce 1200s the soil, is first described in Theophrastus, Arabian scientist Ibn the 1600s. This technique a student of the al-Baytār writes can produce more food Greek philosopher the Compendium on in the same space and Aristotle, is the first Simple Medicaments is a popular method of to study plants for and Foods, featuring growing plants today. their own sake. He the names of 1,400 writes the first plants, foods, drugs, Ibn al-Baytār botanical books, and their uses. was one of the describing around most influential 500 plants. writers on botany in medieval times. The garden exists today in its original location, in Padua, Italy. 60 ce Greek botanist Pedanius Dioscorides writes De Materia Medica, a book on medicinal plants, which is used for the next 1,500 years. 1545 1561 The world’s oldest botanical garden, the The plant Cordia sebestena Orto Botanico di Padova, is built. The is named after German garden was used to grow medicinal botanist Valerius Cordus. He plants and teach students about them. describes plant features and medicinal properties for the first time in his book Historia Plantarum, published in 1561.

1789 Most Every kernel on one ear plastics will not of corn is unique and English naturalist Gilbert break down for can look different White describes the time thousands of years, but from one another. of year that different plants plant-based “bioplastics” bloom. Today, scientists have been developed use this information to that will break down study how climate change into compost. is affecting flowering times. 1800s 1838 1983 Austrian monk and scientist German botanist Matthias Jakob American scientist Barbara Gregor Mendel uses pea plants to Schleiden publishes Contributions McClintock is awarded the to Phytogenesis, in which he Nobel Prize in 1983 for her explore how plants inherit their argues that all plants are made research into the inheritance characteristics. Like humans, a of tiny units called cells. of corn (maize) traits and plant gets half of its characteristics how this is controlled. from the female plant and half Plant cell This work has led to other important discoveries in from the male plant. the field of genetics. 1753 2008 Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus The Svalbard Global Seed Bank is publishes Species Plantarum, which built in Norway in 2008. This building establishes the scientific naming system for plant organisms. stores seeds from around the world in case they are 1950s needed in the future. American scientist Norman Borlaug develops a disease-resistant, dwarf wheat variety, which helps feed billions. Before the 1950s, tall wheat plants often blew over before the top-heavy crops could be harvested. The book contains data on the 5,940 plants known at the time.

SPACE GARDEN Over millions of years of evolution, plants have become perfectly adapted for life on Earth. They are most certainly not adapted to growing in space, yet that is exactly what the plants shown here are doing. As part of an experiment on the International Space Station (ISS), its crew members are growing fresh vegetables in a “space garden” to try to improve their diet.

Plants are sensitive to their surroundings. Their roots grow grow upright, like plants on Earth. They are given water toward sources of water, and their stems grow toward the containing vital nutrients, and the ISS crew breathes out the light. They also react to gravity, growing up and away from its carbon dioxide the plants use to make the sugar they need downward pull. In space, however, these plants are growing to grow. In this process, the plants give off oxygen, which in zero gravity, with their roots held down by woven mats. improves the air quality within the space station, while the The attraction of the artificial lights above them makes them sugar is turned into plant tissue that the crew can eat.

Glossary Glossary Aerial root Biofuel Chlorophyll Evergreen A root that grows from the A renewable fuel produced A green pigment. A plant that keeps its stem of a plant above from plant matter, algae, Plants use the leaves throughout the surface of the ground. or animal waste. chlorophyll in their the year. cells to harvest the Algae Bonsai energy in sunlight. Fertilization Plantlike, mostly water- A tree or shrub grown in a pot Compound leaf The combination of dwelling, organisms such as and kept in miniature form a male cell from pollen seaweed, which contain the by special pruning. Bonsai A leaf that is divided into and a female egg, which green pigment chlorophyll. is also the name given to two or more leaflets. goes on to produce a this type of pruning. young plant known Anther Conifer as an embryo. Bract The part of the flower’s An evergreen tree or shrub Floret stamen that produces pollen. A specialized type of leaf. that has needlelike leaves. Bracts, sometimes brightly All conifers bear cones. A small flower, usually Bark colored, help protect buds one of many making and flowers on some Corm up the head of a flower The tough outer layer of the plants and can also serve such as a daisy. roots, trunk, and branches to attract pollinators. A swollen, bulblike of woody plants such as underground stem. Frond trees and shrubs. Bulb Cotyledon A long leaf that usually Underground fleshy consists of smaller leaves that store The first food-storing leaf, leaflets. They are seen food for a plant. or pair of leaves, formed in plants such as ferns inside a seed. and palms. Deciduous Describes a plant that sheds its leaves each year at the end of a growing season. Dicot Fungus A flowering plant that Microorganisms produces two seed leaves including mushrooms (cotyledons) when it first and toadstools. Fungi starts to grow. are more closely Buttress root Dormant related to animals than to plants. A root that grows out from In an inactive state. Many the trunk of a tree, giving it plants become dormant in the Germination extra support. winter or in times of drought, remaining alive but shutting The process in which a Canopy down to save energy. seed starts to sprout and grow into a plant. An almost continuous layer of branches and leaves Drupe Harvest formed high above the ground by A fleshy fruit, such as a plum The process of cutting treetops. or cherry, containing a single and gathering crops from hard seed or stone. the field when ripe. Epiphyte Host plant A plant that grows on another A plant that is used by 182 plant for support without another for support taking nutrients from it. and/or nutrients.

Inflorescence Petals Glossary A group of flowers on The brightly colored parts of a Pollinator Stamen a single stem. flower that attract pollinating insects and birds to a plant. An animal, such as a bee, The male part of a Kernel moth, or bird, that makes flower that includes the Photosynthesis the fertilization of plants pollen-producing anther. A grain or the inner part possible by moving of a fruit, stone, or nut. The process by which a pollen from flower Stigma green plant uses the energy to flower. Lateral root in sunlight to create food for The female part of a flower. itself from water in the soil Rhizome A root that extends and carbon dioxide in the air. Succulent sideways from a main An underground stem root to anchor a plant Plant that grows horizontally, A plant that stores water in more firmly in the soil. putting out shoots and thickened, fleshy leaves or A living organism, from a moss roots as it spreads. stems. Succulents include cacti. Leaflet to a tree, that produces its own food by photosynthesis. Root hair Taproot One of the smaller leaflike parts of a compound Pneumatophore A microscopic hairlike A thick, central root that leaf growing from growth that extends from grows straight downward. the leaf stalk. A straight aerial root that a root and increases the extends upward through amount of water and Tendril Lenticel swampy soil, enabling a plant nutrients that a plant to exchange gases, or can take in. A threadlike, twining One of the tiny pores on “breathe.” stalk that vine plants a plant stem that helps in Sap use to attach themselves the exchange of gases Pollen to a supporting object. between the plant and The juices in plant cells. its environment. The tiny powdery grains that Tepal contain the male reproductive Lichen cells, which combine with the A flap around flowers that female reproductive cells of a functions as both a sepal An organism made up plant to make seeds. and a petal. of a fungus and an alga, working together. Pollination Tuber Monocot The transfer of pollen grains A thick underground stem or from a male flower, or part of root that some plants use for A flowering plant that produces a flower, to the female parts of storing nutrients. just one seed leaf (cotyledon) a flower, to fertilize the eggs when it starts to grow. so seeds can develop. Vine Nectar A plant that climbs or trails along the ground, supporting The sugary liquid produced its stem with tendrils or by by plants to attract pollinating twining itself around a animals. supporting object. Node Sepal A point on a stem A small, leaflike flap, from which leaves, usually green, that shoots, branches, or surrounds and protects flowers can grow. the petals of a flower. Nutrients Setting seed 183 Minerals used by The process in which a plant to fuel its a plant starts producing growth. seeds after its flowers have been pollinated. Parasitic plant Spore A plant that lives on A tiny reproductive structure another and takes found in nonflowering plants nutrients from it. such as ferns.

Plant index Plant index In this book, plants are called by their “common names”—the names used in everyday life by ordinary people, and which can vary from country to country. However, when scientists around the world talk about a plant, to avoid confusion, they use its scientific name. This is based on an internationally recognized naming system and is in Latin. A plant’s scientific name is made up of two parts: the first is the genus, or group, of plants it comes from, and the second is the name of the specific species. A Apricot Prunus armeniaca 143 Blue spruce Picea pungens 59 Celeriac Apium graveolens var. Argan Argania spinosa 175 Blueberry Vaccinium cyanococcus 139 rapaceum 160 Acai berry Euterpe oleracea 142 Arrowhead Sagittaria 136 Bok choy Brassica rapa var. chinensis Acorn Quercus robur 25, 150 Artichoke Cynara scolymus 165 Century plant Agave americana 94 Adzuki bean Vigna angularis Arugula Eruca sativa 152 153 Charentais melon Cucumis melo Arum lily Zantedeschia aethiopica 67 Borlotti beans Phaseolus vulgaris 155 154, 165 Asian bleeding heart Bougainvillea Bougainvillea 106 var. cantalupensis 149 African moringa Moringa stenopetala Bracken Pteridium aquilinum 53 Cherry Prunus avium 142 Lamprocapnos spectabilis 70 Bradford pear Pyrus calleryana 82 Cherry blossom Prunus serrulata 95 Asparagus Asparagus officinalis Brazil nut Bertholletia excelsa 151 Alder Alnus 25 Brazillian waterweed 72–73, 176 Allspice Pimenta dioica 166 134–135, 160 Chickpea Cicer arietinum 154 Almond Prunus dulcis 150 Atlas cedar Cedrus atlantica 58, 61 Egeria densa 85 Chicory Cichorium intybus 77 Aloe vera Aloe vera 174–175 Australian Christmas tree Bristlecone pine Pinus 58 Chikoo Manilkara zapota 147 Alpine pink Dianthus alpinus 104 Broadleaf stonecrop Chile pepper Capsicum annuum 166 Alpine spotted orchid Nuytsia floribunda 102–103 Chilean bellflower Austrian pine Pinus nigra 6, 56–57 Sedum spathulifolium 104 Dactylorhiza majalis 104 Avocado Persea americana 22 Broom forkmoss Lapageria rosea 177 Amaryllis Hippeastrum 80 Chinese bayberry Myrica rubra 139 Amazonian water lily B Dicarnum scoparium 122 Chinese elm Ulmus parvifolia 125 Brussels sprouts Brassica oleracea Chinese fringetree Victoria amazonica 32–33 Bamboo Bambusa vulgaris 27, 161 American beech Banana Musa 68, 134 152 Chionanthus retusus 116–117 Banks’ rose Rosa banksiae 74 Bryum moss Bryum capillare 46–47 Chinese juniper Juniperus chinensis Fagus grandifolia 112 Barley Hordeum vulgare 22, 131 Buddha’s hand Citrus medica American eelgrass Barrel cactus Echinocactus grusonii 125 var. sarcodactylis 144–145 Chinese redbud Cercis chinensis 116 Vallisneria americana 84–85 91, 92 Buddleia Buddleja davidii 69 Chinese rose Rosa chinensis 11, American pearl laceleaf Baseball plant Euphorbia obesa 95 Bulbophyllum Bulbophyllum 78 Bat-faced cuphea Cuphea llavea 70 Burdock Arctium lappa 14–15, 24 74–75 Anthurium scandens 15 Bean Phaseolus vulgaris 21 Butter and eggs Triphysaria eriantha Chives Allium schoenoprasum 169 American sycamore Bee orchid Ophrys apifera 70–71 Christmas cactus Schlumbergera Platanus occidentalis Beech Fagus 26, 109 103 113 Beet Beta vulgaris 22, 136 Butterfly agave Agave potatorum truncata 93 Angel wings Begonia Begonia hybrid 37 Cinnamon Cinnamomum 167 Caladium bicolor 7, 36 Belladonna Atropa belladonna 100 36–37 Citron Citrus medica 145 Ant fern Lecanopteris Bilberry cactus Butternut squash Clematis Clematis 107 40, 53 Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus Antarctic hair grass Myrtillocactus geometrizans 92 Cucurbita moschata 157 Deschampsia antarctica Bird-of-paradise plant Butterwort Pinguicula cyclosecta 99 138 128 Clumping bamboo Apple Malus 30–31, Strelitzia reginae 66–67 C 117, 135 Bird’s nest fern Asplenium nidus 118 Fargesia murieliae 128 Bishop’s cap cactus Cabbage Brassica oleracea Coast redwood Sequoia sempervirens var. capitata 134 Astrophytum myriostigma 93 112, 114–115 Bitter melon Momordica charantia Cactus mistletoe Cobra plant Darlingtonia californica Tristeryx aphyllus 102 148–149 98 Black currant Ribes nigrum 138 Calypso orchid Calypso bulbosa 122 Cobweb house-leek Sempervivum Black pepper Piper nigrum 167 Camel thorn Acacia erioloba 40, 94 Black-eyed peas Vigna unguiculata Candelabra primrose arachnoideum 104–105 Coco de mer Lodoicea maldivica 23 154 Primula bulleyana 87 Cocoa Theobroma cacao 175 Blackberry Rubus fruticosus 24, 138 Cardoon Cynara cardunculus 160 Coconut palm Cocos nucifera 11, 25, Blackthorn Prunus spinosa 117 Carrion plant Stapelia gigantea 82 Bladderwort Utricularia 99 Carrot Daucus carota 134, 136–137 111, 150, 170–171 Blanket flower Gaillardia 76 Carrot fern Onychium japonicum 53 Coffee Coffea 22, 176 Blood orange Citrus sinensis Cashew Anacardium occidentale Common eelgrass Zostera marina 85 Common daisy Bellis perennis 77 144 151 Common fig Ficus carica 111, 135 Blue agave Agave tequilana 40 Cassava Manihot esculenta 137 Common haircap Blue fescue Festuca glauca 128 Castor oil plant Ricinus communis Blue hubbard squash Polytrichum commune 49 101, Common juniper Cucurbita maxima 157 Cattail Typha latifolia 86 Cattleya orchid Cattleya 176 Juniperus communis 60 Cattleya purpurata Cattleya Common kettlewort Blasia pusilla purpurata var. coerulea 79 48 Common liverwort Marchantia polymorpha 10, 49 Common maidenhair fern Adiantum aethiopicum 53

Foxglove Digitalis purpurea 66 Iris Iris 26, 177 Plant index Frangipani Plumeria rubra 66 Ivy broomrape Common milkweed Dill Anethum graveolens Gac Momordica cochinchinensis 148 Asclepias syriaca 41 ‘Mariska’ 169 Garlic Allium sativum 161 Orobanche hederae 102 Dodder Cuscuta 102 Geranium Pelargonium 36 Jacaranda Jacaranda mimosifolia 117 Common snowberry Dog rose Rosa canina 74 Ghost gum Corymbia aparrerinja 113 Jack-in-the-pulpit Symphoricarpos albus 87 Giant onion Allium giganteum 81 Dragon arum Dracunculus Giant rhubarb Gunnera manicata 86 Arisaema triphyllum 123 Common tamarisk moss Thuidium vulgaris 82 Ginger Zingiber officinale 167 Jackal food Hydnora africana 82 tamariscinum 48 Dragon fruit Hylocereus undatus Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba 33, 57, 83, 110 Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus 146 147 Glittering wood moss Jamaican tangelo Citrus Coneflower Echinacea 76 Dragon’s blood tree Coriander Coriandrum sativum Dracaena cinnabari 110–111 Hylocomium splendens 48 reticulata x Citrus paradisi 145 Durian Durio zibethinus 82–83, 147 Globe thistle Echinops ritro 76 Japanese blood grass 22, 168 Durum wheat Triticum Glory lily Gloriosa superba 176–177 Cork oak Quercus suber 171 turgidum var. durum 131 Goji berry Lycium barbarum 138 Imperata cylindrica 129 Corkscrew hazel Corylus avellana Dwarf iris Iris danfordiae 81 Golden wattle Acacia pycnantha 176 Japanese holly fern Dwarf pomegranate Punica Gorse Ulex 41 ‘Contorta’ 16–17 granatum var. nana 125 Gourd Lagenaria siceraria 157 Cyrtomium falcatum 52 Corn Zea mays 21, 23, 131, 164 Grape Vitis vinifera 43, 139, 140–141 Japanese maple Acer palmatum Cornflower Centaurea cyanus 6, 176 E–G Grapefruit Citrus paradisi 145 Corpse lily Rafflesia arnoldii 103 Green almond Prunus dulcis 142–143 125 Cotton Gossypium hirsutum 171 Echeveria Echeveria 94 Green cardamom Elettaria Japanese painted fern Athyrium Coulter pine Pinus coulteri 60 Elderberry Sambucus nigra 110 Crab apple Malus sylvestris 124 Elephant grass cardamomum 167 niponicum pictum ‘Metallicum’ 53 Crack willow Salix fragilis 113 Green pumpkin Cucurbita pepo 156 Japanese winterberry Ilex serrata Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon Ormiscanthus giganteus 129 Guava Psidium guajava 147 Elephant’s ear Alocasia x amazonica Guelder rose Viburnum opulus 67 124 138 Japanese wisteria Wisteria Crenshaw melon Cucumis melo 148 33 H–K Crimson glory Endive Cichorium endivia 153 floribunda 124 English ivy Hedera helix 16, 32, 107 Hair-awn muhly grass Jasmine Jasminum officinale 176 Rosa ‘Crimson Glory’ 75 English oak Quercus robur 33, 111, Muhlenbergia capillaris 129 Javan cucumber Crookneck squash 113 Hairy-leafed apitong Alsomitra macrocarpa 22–23 Cucurbita moschata 156 English walnut Juglans regia 150 Dipterocarpaceae 22 Jojoba Simmondsia chinensis 174 Crowfoot grass Epicattleya Rene Marques Joshua tree Yucca brevifolia 111 Haleakala silversword Jujube Ziziphus jujuba 142 Dactyloctenium aegyptium 128 Epicattleya ‘Rene Marques’ 78 Argyroxiphium sandwicense var. Juliet rose Rosa ‘Sweet Juliet’ 75 Crown imperial Fritillaria imperialis Eucalyptus Eucalyptus 33, 68, 111, 175 macrocephalum 105 Kaffir lime Citrus hystrix 145 European holly Ilex aquifolium 111 Kajari melon Cucumis melo 148 82 European larch Larix decidua 60 Hares-tail grass Lagurus ovatus 129 Kale Brassica oleracea 153 Cucamelon Melothria scabra 148 European silver fir Abies alba 59 Hart’s tongue fern Kauri Agathis australis 60 Cucumber Cucumis sativus 12–13, Everlasting pea Lathyrus latifolia 106 Key lime Citrus aurantifolia 145 Eyebright Euphrasia rostkoviana 103 Asplenium scolopendrium 52 Kiaat Pterocarpus angolensis 22 157, 174 False saguaro cactus Heart leaf fern Hemionitis arifolia 53 King protea Protea cynaroides 67 Cuipo Cavanillesia platanifolia 25 Heart of palm Bactris gasipaes 160 Kiwi Actinidia deliciosa 134 Cumin Cuminum cyminum 166 Pachycereus pringlei 93 Helosis Helosis cayennensis 102 Kohlrabi Brassica oleracea 161 Curly parsley Petroselinum crispum Fanwort Cabomba aquatica 84 Hemlock Conium maculatum 100 Korean fir Abies koreana 61 Fava beans Vicia faba 154 Hemp Cannabis sativa 171 Korean melon Cucumis melo var. 168 Fawn lily Erythronium revolutum 123 Henna Lawsonia inermis 174 Cushaw pumpkin Fennel Foeniculum vulgare 161 Himalayan blue poppy makuwa 149 Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum Kumquat Citrus japonica 145 Cucurbita argyrosperma 156 Meconopsis grandis 176 Cycad Cycas revoluta 57 167 Himalayan may apple L–M Figaro dahlia Dahlia hybrida 10 D Fir clubmoss Huperzia selago 49 Podophyllum hexandrum 105 Laburnum Laburnum anagyroides Fissidens moss Fissidens fontanus Holly Ilex 32, 37 116–117 Daffodil Narcissus pseudonarcissus 80 Honey locust Dahlia Dahlia 36–37 118 Lady’s slipper orchid Daikon Raphanus sativus 137 Flame vine Pyrostegia venusta 107 Gleditsia triacanthos 34–35 Cypripedioideae 122 Damson Prunus domestica var. Flamingo lily Anthurium 36 Honeydew melon Cucumis Flat-leaf parsley Lamb’s ear Stachys byzantina 40 insititia 143 melo var. ‘Honey Dew’ 149 Large duck orchid Dancing ladies orchid Petroselinum crispum 168 Horned melon Flowering rush Butomus umbellatus Caleana major 71 Oncidium 71, 119 Cucumis metuliferus 149 Dandelion Taraxacum officinale 84 Hornwort 185 Forest star moss Mnium hornum 48 24–25, 32, 136 Forget-me-not Myosotis alpestris 104 Ceratophyllum demersum 84 Darth Vader plant Aristolochia Four-leaved pink sorrel Horse chestnut salvadorensis 70 Oxalis tetraphylla 35 Aesculus hippocastanum 23, Date Phoenix dactylifera 143 35 Dead horse arum Hosta Hosta fortunei var. hyacinthina 122 Helicodiceros muscivorus 83 Hot lips Psychotria elata 71 Deodar cedar Cedrus deodara 58 Hubbard squash Cucurbita maxima 157 Hyacinth Hyacinthus 81 Iceberg rose Rosa ‘Schneewittchen’ 75 Indian pipe Monotropa uniflora 70

Large-flowered trillium Meadow horsetail P–R Purple loosestrife Lythrum salicaria Trillium grandiflorum 123 Equisetum pretense 48–49 87 Pampas grass Cortaderia selloana Lavender Lavandula angustifolia Mediterranean cypress 129 Purple pussypaws 175, 177 Cupressus sempervirens 110 Cistanthe umbellata 96–97 Papaya Carica papaya 146 Lebanon cedar Cedrus libani 59 Mexican fire barrel Parrot flower Impatiens psittacina Queen of the Andes Puya raimondii Leek Allium ampeloprasum 80–81, 160 Ferocactus pilosus 93 28 Lemon Citrus limon 145 70 Lentil Lens culinaris 23, 154 Milk thistle Silybum marianum 25 Parrot’s feather Queen of the Night Epiphyllum Lettuce Lactuca sativa 152 Mint Mentha 26, 169 oxypetalum 91 Lily of the valley Convallaria majalis Mistletoe Viscum album 102 Myriophyllum aquaticum 85 Mock orange Philadelphus coronarius Parsnip Pastinaca sativa 136 Queen Victoria agave 100 Passion flower Passiflora helleri 41 Agave victoria-reginae 95 Lima bean Phaseolus lunatus 154–155 116 Passion fruit Passiflora edulis 146 Lingonberry Vaccinium vitis-idaea 138 Pattypan squash Cucurbita pepo 157 Radicchio Cichorium intybus 152, 165 Little bluestem Monk’s hood cactus Pea Pisum sativum 155, 179 Radish Raphanus raphanistrum 137 Astrophytum ornatum 90–91 Peach Prunus persica 22, 142 Rainbow chard Beta vulgaris var. Schizachyrium scoparium 10 Peanut Arachis hypogaea 151 Living stone Lithops helmutii 95 Monkey puzzle tree Pear Pyrus communis 135 vulgaris 152–153 Llareta Azorella compacta 94 Araucaria araucana 60 Pearl millet Pennisetum glaucum 131 Rainbow eucalyptus Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta 11, 60 Pecan Carya illinoinensis 151 Long strap fern Moth orchid Phalaenopsis 78 Persian cornflower Eucalyptus deglupta 112–113 Mother of thousands Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum Campyloneurum phyllitidis 119 Centaurea dealbata 77 Long-petaled lewisia Kalanchoe daigremontiana 26 Persimmon Diospyros 112, 146 146–147 Petunia Petunia cultivars 37 Raspberry Rubus idaeus 138 Lewisia longipetala 105 Mountain buttercup Pincushion moss Red cabbage Brassica oleracea 153 Lotus Nelumbo nucifera 24, 136, 177 Ranunculus montanus 105 Red cross orchid Epidendrum Love in a puff Leucobryum glaucum 123 Mulberry Morus 138 Pine Pinus 113 radicans 78 Cardiospermum halicacabum 22 Mung beans Vigna radiata 155 Pine nut Pinus gerardiana 151 Red currant Ribes rubrum 138 Luffa Luffa acutangula 157 Munstead wood Rosa ‘Munstead Pineapple Ananas comosus 146 Red disa Disa uniflora 79 Lupine Lupinus 11, 34 Pineapple lily Eucomis bicolor 82 Red hot poker Kniphofia uvaria 67 Lychee Litchi chinensis 147 Wood’ 74 Pineapple zamia Macrozamia lucida Red powderpuff Macadamia Musk rose Rosa moschata 75 61 Calliandra haematocephala 66 Macadamia integrifolia 150 Mustard Brassica 167 Pink quill Tillandsia cyanea 67 Resurrection plant Magnolia Magnolia 117 Mutisia Mutisia 77 Pink wood sorrel Oxalis debilis 80 Male fern Dryopteris filix-mas 50–51, Pistachio Pistacia vera 150 Selaginella lepidophylla 94 N–O Pitch pine Pinus rigida 61 Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum 135, 160 52 Plum Prunus domestica 142 Rice Oryza sativa 130–131, 132–133 Manchineel Naked man orchid Orchis italica 70 Pomegranate Punica granatum 22 Rosa Mundi Rosa officinalis Nasturtium Tropaeolum 32 Pomelo Citrus maxima 35, 144, 165 Hippomane mancinella 101 Necklace orchid Pong pong Cerbera odollam 101 ‘Versicolor’ 75 Manchurian striped maple Poppy Papaver 22, 28–29, 67 Rosary pea Abrus precatorius 100 Pholidota imbricata 119 Pot marigold Calendula officinalis 22 Rose Rosa 37, 41 Acer tegmentosum 112 Potato Solanum tuberosum 137 Rose Rosa hybrida 177 Mango Mangifera indica 142 Nectarine Prunus persica 143 Powdery strap airplant Rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus 176 Mangosteen Neon broom cactus Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis 169 Catopsis berteroniana 98 Rough horsetail Equisetum hyemale Garcinia mangostana 147 Arrojadoa penicillata 93 Prayer plant Calathea 37 Maple Acer 31, 176 Prickly pear Opuntia 91, 92–93 87 Marsh clubmoss Nerine Nerine bowdenii 80 Primrose Primula vulgaris 66 Royal poinciana Delonix regia 116 Nordmann fir Abies nordmanniana Prostrate speedwell Rubber Hevea brasiliensis 171 Lycopodiella inundata 48 Rubber tree Ficus elastica 18–19 Marsh marigold Caltha palustris 111 Veronica prostrata 105 Runner bean Phaseolus coccineus Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo 156, 69, 86 Norway maple Acer platanoides 154 Maui-island aster 25, 108–109 158–159 Rutabaga Brassica napobrassica 137 Rye Secale cereale 131 Hesperomannia arbuscula 76 Norway spruce Picea abies 61 186 Meadow foxtail Alopecurus pratensis Nun orchid Phaius tankervilleae 79 Nutmeg Myristica fragrans 167 126 Oat Avena sativa 130 Oca Oxalis tuberosa 137 Old man cactus Cephalocereus senilis 93 Old man of the Andes Oreocereus leucotrichus 11 Oleander Nerium oleander 101 Olive Olea europaea 142–143 Oncidium Oncidium croesus 78 Onion Allium cepa 160 Orange Citrus sinensis 144 Oregano Origanum vulgare 168 Organ pipe cactus Stenocereus thurberi 92 Oriental fountain grass Pennisetum orientale 129 Orthotrichum moss Orthotrichum anomalum 119 Ostrich fern Matteuccia struthiopteris 52–53 Outeniqua yellowwood Afrocarpus falcatus 60 Overnight scentsation Rosa ‘Overnight scentsation’ 60

S–T Sphagnum Sphagnum 49 Plant index Spider plant Chlorophytum comosum Sacred fir Abies religiosa 58 Thai basil Ocimum basilicum 169 Watercress Nasturtium officinale 153 Saffron Crocus sativus 167 27–28 Thistle Cirsium 40 Watermelon Citrullus lanatus 148 Sage Salvia officinalis ‘Purpurascens’ Spinach Spinacia oleracea 153 Thurber’s stemsucker Waterwheel plant Spotted fritillary 168–169 Pilostyles thurberi 102 Aldrovanda vesiculosa 98 Saguaro Carnegiea gigantea 69, 91, 92 Fritillaria atropurpurea 105 Thyme Thymus vulgaris 168 Wax plant Hoya 66 Samphire Salicornia europaea 161 Squill Hyacinthoides non-scripta 122 Tibetan cherry Prunus serrula 113 Welwitschia Welwitschia mirabilis 57 Sandalwood Santalum album 174 Staghorn fern Tiger lily Lilium tigrinum 64–65 Wheat Triticum 33, 130 Santa Claus melon Cucumis melo Tigger melon Cucumis melo 148 Whistling thorn acacia Platycerium superbum 118–119 Tillandsia air plant ‘Santa Claus’ 149 Stanhopea Stanhopea wardii 79 Vachellia drepanolobium 41 Satsuki azalea Rhododendron Star anise Illicium verum 167 Tillandsia 118 White baneberry Star fruit Averrhoa carambola 146 Titan arum indicum 124–125 Star jasmine Actaea pachypoda 100–101 Savoy cabbage Brassica oleracea Amorphophallus titanum 83 White clover Trifolium repens 35 Trachelospermum jasminoides 106 Tomato Solanum lycopersicum 135 White egret flower var. sabauda 152 Star moss Tortula ruralis 10 Treasure flower Gazania rigens 76 Scots pine Pinus sylvestris 124 Stiff clubmoss Tromboncino Cucurbita moschata Pecteilis radiata 71 Sensitive plant Mimosa pudica 34 White poplar Populus alba 113 Serpentine sugarbush Lycopodium annotinum 10 157 White skunk cabbage Stifftia Stifftia chrysantha 76 Tropical pitcher plant Nepenthes x Protea curvata 104 Stinging nettle Urtica dioica 41 Lysichiton camtschatcensis 87 Sesame Sesamum indicum 166 Stinking iris Iris foetidissima 83 red leopard 98–99 White snakeroot Shea Vitellaria paradoxa 175 Stinking toe Hymenaea courbaril 34 Trumpet pitcher plant Siberian dwarf pine Pinus pumila 58 Strangler fig Ficus religiosa 120-121 Ageratina altissima 100 Silk floss Ceiba speciosa 112 Strawberry Fragaria 21, 27, 134, 139 Sarracenia 99 Whorl flower Ainsliaea 76 Silver birch Betula pendula 33 Sugar maple Acer saccharum 32, 110 Tulip Tulipa 36, 81 Wild desert gourd Silver fern Cyathea dealbata 35 Sugar pine Pinus lambertiana 59, 61 Turkish hazelnut Corylus colurna Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis 59 Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum Citrullus colocynthis 95 Slipper orchid Paphiopedilum 79 150–151 Wild garlic Allium ursinum 122 Sloe Prunus spinosa 143 16, 130 Turmeric Curcuma longa 166–167 Winged beans Smooth hornwort Phaeoceros laevis Sun pitcher plant Heliamphora Turnip Brassica rapa subsp. rapa 136 Twisted moss Tortula ruralis 48 Psophocarpus tetragonolobus 154 10 heterodoxa x minor 99 Wisteria Wisteria 106 Snapdragon Antirrhinum majus 70 Sun rose Cistus x argenteus U–V Wolfsbane Aconitum napellus 101 Snow pea Pisum sativum var. Wollemi pine Wollemia nobilis 60 ‘Peggy Sammons’ 17 Umbrella grass Cyperus alternifolius Wood anemone saccharatum 11, 155 Sunblest rose Rosa ‘landora’ 74 85 Snowy woodrush Luzula nivea 127 Sundew Drosera capensis 99 Anemone nemorosa 123 Soft rush Juncus effusus 87 Sunflower Helianthus 22, 38–39, 77 Valerian Valeriana officinalis 83 Yew Taxus baccata 101 Soft shield fern Polystichum setiferum Swamp rose mallow Vanda Vanda 79 Ylang-ylang Cananga odorata 174 Vanda orchid Vanda Gaud 11 Yubari King melon Cucumis melo 52 Hibiscus moscheutos 86 Vanilla Vanilla 167 Soft tree fern Dicksonia antarctica Sweet chestnut Castanea sativa 151 Velvet feather-moss ‘Yubari King’ 149 Sweet pea Lathyrus odoratus 67 Zululand cycad 11, 52 Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas 27 Brachythecium velutinum 49 Sorghum Sorghum bicolor 130 Sweet vernal grass Venus flytrap Dionaea muscipula 98 Encephalartos ferox 60 Soybeans Glycine max 155 Virginia creeper Zygopetalum Zygopetalum 78 Spangle grass Anthoxanthum odoratum 126–127 Swiss cheese plant Parthenocissus quinquefolia 107 Chasmanthium latifolium 128–129 Virginia waterleaf Spanish moss Tillandsia usneoides Monstera deliciosa 32 Sword fern Nephrolepis exaltata 123 Hydrophyllum virginianum 36 118 Tamarack larch Larix laricina 59 Tamarind Tamarindus indica 34 Taro Colocasia esculenta 137 Tea Camellia sinensis 40, 177 Teosinte Zea mays parviglumis 164 Tepary beans Phaseolus acutifolius 155 Tephrocactus Tephrocactus aoracanthus 93 W–Z 187 Wasabi Eutrema japonicum 167 Water chestnut Eleocharis dulcis 161 Water hawthorn Aponogeton distachyos 85 Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes 84 Water lettuce Pistia stratiotes 85 Water lily Nymphaea 84 Water spearmint Mentha cervina 87

Index Index A B C coco de mer 22, 23 coconut palm 25, 111, 150, acorns 25, 150 bamboo 26, 27, 128, cabbage 134, 152, 153 aerial roots 15, 19 129, 161 cacti 11, 90–91, 151, 170–171 African moringa 95 Compendium on Simple agave 36, 40, 41, 94, 95 banana 134 92–93, 102 algae 12 barley 22, 131 cactus mistletoe Medicaments and Food 178 almond 142, 143, 150, 151 barrel cactus 91, 92 compound leaves 34–35 aloe vera 175 baseball plant 95 102, 103 cones 56–57, 58–59, 60–61 alpine pink 104, 105 bats 68–69 California, US conifers 54–55, 109, 110, alpines 104–105 beans 154–155 Amaryllis 80, 81 beauty products 165, 114–115 114–115 Amazonian water lily 32, 33 camel thorn 40, 41, 94, 95 cones 56–57, 60–61 American sycamore 113 174–175 Canada 176, 177 pine family 58–59 ancient plants 48–49 bee orchid 70, 71 candelabra primrose 87 Contributions in Phytogenesis bees 65, 68, 71 canopy, rain forest 119 179 see also ferns; mosses beet 136 capsules 47 corals 12 Andes, South America 28 Belize 88–89 cardoon 160, 161 Cordus, Valerius 178 angel wing 36, 37 belladonna 100 Caribbean Sea 88–89 coriander 22, 23, 168 angiosperms 11 Bhutan 176, 177 carnivorous plants 98–99 cork oak 171 animals bioplastics 179 carrion plant 82, 83 corkscrew hazel 17 bird-of-paradise 66, 67 carrot 134, 136, 137 corms 136 defenses against 40 birds 68–69 Cascade Range, California corn 131, 164, 179 for seed spreading 24, 25 bird’s nest fern 119 corpse lily 103 grazing 43, 126 blackthorn 116, 117 114–115 cosmetics 165, 174–175 ant fern 40, 53 bladderwort 99 cashew 151 cotton 171 aphids 17 blades 30, 127 cassava 137 crab apple 124 apple 30–31, 116, 117, blossoms 72–73, castor oil plant 101 cranberry 138 124, 135 cattail 86, 87 creeping plants 16, 106–107 aquatic plants 84–85 116–117 cedars 58–59, 61 crimson glory rose 75 argan 175 blue fescue 128, 129 celeriac 160 crops 128, 131, 136, 154, arrowhead plants 136 blue spruce 59 century plant 94, 95 164–165 arum lily 67 bonsai trees 124–125 cereal plants 130–131 crown imperial plant 82, 83 asparagus 135, 160 Borlaug, Norman 179 Charentais melon 148, 149 cucumber 13, 22, 148, 157, Atacama Desert, Chile borlotti bean 155 cherry tree 72–73, 113, 117, 174 96–97 botanical gardens 178 cuipo 25 Australia 176 botany 178–179 142 culinary nut 150–151 Australian Christmas tree bougainvillea 106 chestnut 151 cycada 57 102, 103 bracts 67 chickpea 154 cypress 110 Austrian pine 56 Bradford pear 82, 83 chicory 77 avocado 22 Brazil 176 Chile 96–97, 177 D bridges 18–19 chile pepper 166, 167 bristlecone pine 58 China 177 daffodil 80, 81 broadleaf stonecrop 104, China rose 11, 74 dahlia 36, 37 Chinese bayberry 138, 139 daikon 136, 137 105 Chinese elm 125 daisies 10, 76–77 Brussels sprout 152, Chinese juniper 125 dancing ladies orchid 70, 71 Chinese redbud 116, 117 dandelion 24, 25, 32, 136, 153 chlorophyll 12, 31, 43 Buddha’s hand 144, Christmas cactus 93 137 citron 144, 145 date 142, 143 145 citrus fruits 144–145 dead horse arum 83 buds 28, 29, 108 clematis 106, 107 bulbs 80–81, 160–161 climbing plants 16, 91, burdock 14–15, 24, 25 butter and eggs 103 106–107 butterflies 41, 68, 69, 79 clothing fibers 165 butternut squash 157 cloudberry 138, 139 butterwort 99 clubmoss 47, 48, 49 buttress roots 15 coast redwood 112, 114–115 cobweb house-leek 104, 105 cocoa bean 175

deciduous trees 59, 109, fissidens moss 118 H jasmine 106, 176 110, 111 flakes 91 jojoba 174, 175 flame vine 107 hairs, root 15 Juliet rose 75 defenses 40–41 flamingo lily 36 hart’s tongue fern 52, juniper 60, 125 bark 112, 113 florets 38–39 Kajari melon 148, 149 poison 40, 81, 95, flowering rushes 84, 85 53 kale 153 100–101, 143 flowers 12, 13, 28–29, haustoria 103 kauri 60, 61 spines 41, 91, 92, 95, 112 hazel 17, kettlewort 48, 49 spots 37 64–65, 80–81 kiaat 22 thorns 40–41, 95, 106 cacti 90 150, 151 king protea 67 coconuts 171 heart leaf kiwi fruit 134 De Materia Medica 178 forms and shapes 66–67, kohlrabi 160, 161 desert plants 91, 92, 94–95, 68, 70–71 fern 53 Korean melon 149 grasses 126 heart of palm 160, 161 kumquat 145 97 imitating other flowers helosis 102, 103 dicots 11, 21 and plants see mimicry hemiparasites 102–103 L dill 169 national flowers 176–177 hemlock 100 dinosaurs 54–55 scents 68, 69, 82–83 hemp 171 laburnum 116 Dioscorides, Pedanius 178 food storage 21, 80, 136, 160 henna 174, 175 ladybugs 68, 69 diseases 37, 112, 113 forest plants 91, 109, herbs 168–169 Lanzarote, Spain 140–141 dodder 102, 103 122–123 high altitude plants 104–105 larch 58–59, 60–61 dog rose 74, 75 rain forest plants 15, 33, Himalayan blue poppy 176, large duck orchid 71 durians 82, 83, 147 93, 109, 119, 172–173 large-flowered trillium 123 dwarf pomegranate 124, 125 see also conifers 177 lateral roots 14, 15 dye 116, 170, 175 fossil 51, 53 Himalayan may apple 105 lavender 174, 175, 177 frangipani 66 Historia Plantarum 178 leaflets 35 E fritillary, spotted 105 holly 36, 37, 111 leaves 13, 14, 21, 30–31, fronds 50, 52–53 holoparasites 103 echeveria 94 fruits 13, 28, 116, 134–135, honeydew melon 148, 149 171 edible bulbs 81, 160–161 170 honey locust 35 as defenses 41 elderberry 110, 111 citrus 144–145 horned melon 149 grasses 127 elephant grass 129 melons 148–149 hornwort 10, 47, 84, 85 shapes and sizes of elephant’s ear 33 soft fruits 138–139 horse chestnut 22, 23 32–33, 34–35, 86 embryos 20, 21 stone fruits 142–143 horsetail 47, 49, 54, 87 vegetables 134, 152 English ivy 16, 32, 107 tropical fruits 146–147 Hubbard squash 157 Lebanon cedar 58, 59 English oak 33, 111, 113 fungal diseases 113 hummingbirds 68, 69 leek 81, 160 fungi 12 hyacinth 81 legume 11 acorns 25, 150 hydroponics 149, 178 lemon 145 English walnut 150, 151 G Hyperion (world’s tallest lentil 154 ephemeral plants 96–97, lettuce 152, 153 gac 148, 149 tree) 114–115 123 garlic 122, 123, 161 189 eucalyptus 110, 111, 113, geranium 36 I germination 20, 21, 22, 25, 175 Ibn al-Baytar 178 European silver fir 59 28 iceberg rose 75 evergreen trees 59, 109, ginger 166, 167 India 18–19, 154, 177 ginkgo 32, 33, 57, 83, 110, indoors, growing 110–111 everlasting pea 106 111 (hydroponics) 149, 178 extinction 51, 79, 173 glory lily 176 inflorescences 66 eyebright 103 glucose 12 Inokashira Park, Japan goji berry 138 F golden wattle 176 72–73 gorse 41 insects 53, 68–69, 79, 82 false saguaro cactus 92, 93 gourd 148, 156, 157 International Space Station fanwort 84, 85 grain 130–131 farming 132–133, 165 grapevine 139, 140–141 (ISS) 180–181 fava bean 154, 155 grasses 10, 126–127, iris 26, 81, 83 fennel 161 ferns 11, 46, 50–51, 52–53, 128–129, 130–131 J–K grassland plants 91, 127 54–55, 123 groundnut 151 Jackal food plants 82, 83 living on other plants guava 146, 147 jackfruit 146 118–119 gymnosperms 11, 46 Jamaican tangelo 145 Fibonacci sequence 39 Japan 72–73, 117, 125, fiddleheads 50 fig 111, 120–121, 135 176 fir 58–59, 60–61, 110–111 Japanese painted fern 53

miniature trees (bonsai) papaya 146, 147 Q 124–125 paper 165 mint 26, 169 parasitic plants 102–103 mistletoe 102 queen of the Andes 28 parrot flower 70, 71 queen of the night 91 mock orange 116 parrot’s feather 85 monk’s hood cactus 90 parsnip 136 Queen Victoria agave 94, 95 monocots 11, 21 passion flower 41 R mosses 10, 46–47, 48–49, passion fruit 146 118–119, 122, 123 patterned plants 36–37, Leuser Ecosystem 172–173 mother of thousands 26, 27 38–39 rachis 51 lewisia, long-petaled 105 moths 68 radial symmetry 39 lichens 12 mountain plants 104–105 pattypan squash 157 radicchio 152, 153 life cycles, plants 28–29 mulberry 138 pea 154–155 rainbow chard 152, 153 lima bean 155 multicolored (variegated) peach 22, 142 rainbow eucalyptus 113 lime 145 peanut 151 rain forest plants 15, 33, 93, lingonberry 138, 139 plants 36–37 pear 135 Linnaeus, Carl 179 mummification 168 pecan 151 109, 119, 172–173 liverworts 10, 47, 49 musical instruments 165, 170 pepper 167 rambutan 146, 147 living bridges 18–19 mustard 167 perennial plants 28 red hot poker 67 living stone plant 95 Mutusia flower 77 perfume 117, 168, 174 red powderpuff 66 llareta 94, 95 persimmon 146, 147 redwood 112, 115 lodgepole pine 60, 61 N petals 29, 64, 78 reproduction 13, 26–27 long strap fern 119 petioles 30 lotus 177 naked man orchid 70 photosynthesis 12, 31, 181 see also pollination lumber 165, 170, 173 national flowers 176–177 pineapple 146 resins 113 lupine 34 nectar 64, 65, 69, 98 pine nut 151 resurrection plant 94 lychee 147 nectarine 143 pines 58–59, 60–61, 113 rhizomes 26, 51, 137 lycopods 10 needles 58–59 pink quill 67 rhubarb 86, 87, 160, 161 nerine 80, 81 pinna 50 rice 130, 131, 132–133 M nitrogen 42–43 pistachio 150, 151 ricin 101 nonflowering plants 10, pitcher plant 98, 98–99 rings (tree) 109 magnolia 116, 117 plantlets 27 riverbank plants 86–87 male fern 50–51, 52 46–47 plum 117 roots 13, 14–15, 19, 50, 90, manchineel 101 see also cones; ferns; pneumatophore roots 15 Manchurian striped maple mosses poisonous plants 40, 81, 95, 127 Nordmann fir 110, 111 epiphytes and parasites 112, 113 Norway maple 108–109 100–101, 143 103, 118–119, 121 mandarin orange 144 nuts 150–151 pollen 60, 64, 78, 79 first 20 mangroves 15, 88–89 pollination 53, 56, 60, 61, 64 underwater 84, 88–89 maple 108–109, 110, 111, O vegetables 134, 136 see also reproduction ropes 170 176, 177 oca 137 pollinators 64, 66, 68–69, rose hips 74, 75 leaves 32, 33 oils 75, 170 rose of Sharon 176 seeds 25 olive 142, 143 70–71, 78, 79 rosemary 168, 169 bats 91, 93 roses 11, 17, 74–75 birds 60, 66, 101 onion 81, 160 insects 53, 68–69, 79, marigold 22, 23, 86, 87 orange 144 materials, from plants 82 158–159, 165, 170–171 orchids 11, 70–71, 78–79, pomegranate 22 Maui island-aster 76, 77 119 pomelo 35, 144 alpine spotted 104, 105 poppy 22, 28–29, 66, 67 McClintock, Barbara 179 cattleya 79, 176–177 potato 137 meat-eating plants 98–99 oregano 168, 169 prickles 41 medicinal plants 49, 75, 117, organ pipe cactus 92, 93 prickly pear cactus 92, orthotrichum moss 118, 119 137, 165, 166, 168, 178 Orto Botanico di Padova 178 93 Mediterranean cypress Outeniqua yellowwood 60 primrose 66 ovaries 64, 65 products, from plants 110 melon 148–149 158–159, 165, Mendel, Gregor 179 170–171 midribs 31 proteins 42–43, 150, 154 milk thistle 25 P pulses 154–155 milkweed, common 41 mimicry pumpkin 148, 156, 157, for defense 41, 82–83 palms 11, 143 158–159 coconut palm 25, 111, for pollination 69, 70–71, 150, 151, 170–171 purple loosestrife 87 190 78, 82–83 pampas grass 129 pussypaws 96–97

rubber 171 soil 42–43 thyme 168 water lettuce 85 Index rubber fig 18–19 sori 51 Tibetan cherry 113 water lily 84, 85 runner bean 154, 155 soybean 155 tiger lily 65 watermelon 148, 149 runners, stem 26 space, plants in 74, 180–181 tigger melon 148, 149 water plants 84–85 rush 127 Spanish moss 118, 119 titan arum 83 water spearmint 87 rutabaga 136 Species Plantarum 179 treasure flower 76, 77 water storage 80, 90, spices 166–167 trees 19, 108–109, 110–111 S spider plant 27 91, 94 spines 41, 91, 92, 95, 112 bark 112–113 waterweed 85 saffron 167 spores 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53 blossoms 72–73, 116–117 waterwheel plant 98 sage 169 sporophyte 47 bonsai trees 124–125 welwitschia 57 saguaro cactus 92 spruce 58–59, 60–61 plants growing on 77, wheat 130, 131 sakura 73 squash 156–157 118–119 White, Gilbert 179 squill 122, 123 tropical fruits 146–147 white baneberry 100, 101 samphire 161 staghorn fern 118, 119 Tualatin Pumpkin Regatta, white egret flower 70, 71 sandalwood 174 stalks, edible 160–161 US 158–159 white poplar 113 Santa Claus melon 149 stamens 64, 67 tubers 27, 137 white skunk cabbage 87 sap 17 star fruit 146, 147 tulip 36, 37, 81 whorl flower 76, 77 satsuki azalea 124 stems 13, 16–17, 26, 90, 92 turmeric 166 wild berries 138 Scalbard Global Seed Bank twining stems 107 wild rose 74 climbers and creepers wind, for seed spreading 179 106–107 V scales 56, 57 rhizomes 26, 51, 137 25 scents 82–83 vegetables 135, 160–161 vanilla 167 winged bean 154, 155 Schleiden, Matthias Jakob stifftia 76, 77 variegated plants 36–37 wisteria 106, 124 stigmas 64 vegetables 134–135, wolfsbane 100, 101 179 stilt roots 15 wood anemone 122, 123 science, of plants 178–179 stipes 51 136–137, 180–181 seagrass 127 stomata 30 bulbs, stems, and stalks Y–Z sedge 127 stone fruits 142–143 160–161 seedless plants 26–27 strangler fig 120–121 greens 152–153 yew 101 seedlings 28 strawberry 26, 27, 134, 139 peas and beans 154–155 ylang-ylang 174 seeds 20–21, 28, 64, 150, sugar 12, 31, 42, 171 squashes 156–157 Yubari King melon 149 sugarcane 16, 130, 131 veins 30, 31, 32, 49 Zimbabwe 176 164 sugar maple 110, 111 Venus flytraps 98 conifer 57, 60 sugar pine 58, 59 Vietnam 132–133 fruits 134–135 Sumatra, Indonesia vines 106–107, 139, 148, 156 shapes 22–23 172–173 vineyards 140–141 spreading of 24–25 sunblest rose 74, 75 Virginia creeper 106–107 sensitive plant 34, 35 sundew 99 Virginia waterleaf 37 sepals 78 sunflower 22, 23, 38–39, 77 vitamins 75, 134, 138, 144, shea nut 175 sun rose 17 156 “short-lived” plants 96–97 sweet potato 26, 27 volcanic ash 140–141 silk floss 112 sweet vernal grass 126–127 silver birch 33 Swiss cheese plant 32, 33 W simple leaves 32–33 symmetrical patterns 38–39 sitka spruce 59 water, coconut 170 sloe 143 T water, for seed spreading 25 snap traps 98 water hyacinth 84, 85 snowberry 87 tamarack larch 59 snow pea 155 tamarinds 34, 35 soft fruits 138–139 taproot 14 soft rushes 87 taro plant 136, 137 tea 40, 41, 137, 169, 177 tendrils 12, 107 teosinte 164 tepary bean plant 155 Thailand 71, 121 Theophrastus 178 thorns 40–41, 95, 106 Thurber’s stemsucker 102, 103

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Alamy Stock Photo: RosaIreneBetancourt 7 60cr, Digitalimagined 35c, 48br, 49c, 60crb, Cristina Dini 174crb, Photolibrary 110tr, Piotr Naskrecki / Minden Pictures 102cb, AB Historic 179cb, Afripics 22cb, All Canada Photos 70cra, Anton Ignatenco / Dionisvera 150cl, Le Thuy Do 116clb, Stephen Dalton / Minden Pictures 25tl, 68cb, REDA&CO / 122c, Archive PL 48cb, Arco Images GmbH 25tr, 101tr, Arterra 148–149tc, Dohnal 130br, 131br, Draftmode 23cl, 134cr Universal Images Group Editorial 106clb, James Morgan / Picture Library 6tr, 25ca, 104ca, Bill Lea / Dembinsky Photo (Banana), 146tl, 157cl, Reza Ebrahimi 57crb, Ed8563 59ca robertharding 160cla, Paul Starosta 75tr, Manuel Sulzer 77ca, Associates 123r, Bruce Montagne / Dembinsky Photo (Tamarack Trees), Ekays 33r, Emilio100 143tl, 179c, Empire331 Yuri Smityuk\\TASS 68tr, Tiler84 111r, TimArbaev 170br Associates 36crb, Auscape International Pty Ltd 60cl, Avalon / 12crb, Eyeblink 15tc, Ama F 107bl, Fibobjects 77br, Sergii (Latex), Universal Images Group / Auscape 95tl, David Lees / Photoshot License 24bl, 58c, 107c, Steven Bade 161tc, Robert Koval / Fomaa 136bl, Gaja 16–17cla, Natalia Garmasheva 48ca, Corbis / VCG 178cb, Visuals Unlimited / Dr. Ken Wagner 41cl, Biedermann 87c, Biosphoto 100–101t, 102clb, Blickwinkel 48cr, Patrick Gosling 122cla, Gow927 170–171c, Antonio Gravante Visuals Unlimited / Henry Robison 10cra, Buddhika 49crb, 53tl, 75cb, 79crb, 87br, 185tl, Joe Blossom 69cla, 106tl, 171crb (Wine cork), Richard Griffin 80cra, David Hayes Weerasinghe 167clb, Woraput / E+ 125tc; https://www. Sebastien Bonaime 5bc, 116cb, 186–187b, Mark Boulton 111tc, 69crb, Artem Honchariuk 130c, Zeng Hu 11bl, Boonchuay flickr.com/photos/heinerc/: 71cr; iStockphoto.com: Buiten-Beeld 15cb (Kapok Tree), Nigel Cattlin 20–21b, 28cb, Iamsumang 174cb, Andrii Iarygin 13, Anton Ignatenco 150cla, abriendomundo 96–97, Tamonwan Amornpornhaemahiran 47crb, 87cr, 127cb, Robert Clare 102tl, Jim Clark 122cr, Mark Artem Illarionov 22c (Peach stone), Imagoinsulae 59clb, Irabel8 107tr, anatchant 146c, Anna39 61tl, AntiMartina 122br, asiafoto Collinson 41bl, Collpicto 52ca, Connection One 118clb, Rob 32cla, Irinaroibu 151crb, Irochka 77cla, Roman Ivaschenko 69c, Balky79 61cr, Ballycroy 122bc, Baramyou0708 118tl, Crandall 104c, 184bl, Custom Life Science Images 41cra, 77bc, Wasana Jaigunta 128bc, 147cr, Janecat11 35clb, Jfanchin Chengyuzheng 155cl (Mung bean), 161cl, Creativeye99 150crb, Jolanta Dąbrowska 49bl, 131l, Ethan Daniels 25cl, Universal 34crb, Jianghongyan 139cl, 147c, Justas Jaru?evi?ius / Jjustas 151cr, 154cr, cristaltran 132–133, Dafinchi 104–105bc, Images Group North America LLC / DeAgostini 27tl, 92c, 22clb, Johannesk 118cb, Ang Wee Heng John | 12cb, Damocean 88–89, design56 146crb, 191cla, DigiTrees 116ca, 128cra, Danita Delimont 91cra, Douglas Peebles Photography Joophoek 176crb, Jpldesigns 32–33t, Numpon Jumroonsiri 116cl, DmitriyKazitsyn 109cb, DrPAS 117tc, Cislander / E+ 91crb, Joel Douillet 75tc, 185cr, Stuart Fawbert 53cb, Florapix 24cl (Lotus seeds), Karelgallas 95br, Katerina Kovaleva / 157c, E+ / ranasu 16br, Eloi_Omella 140–141, Elpy 22ca, 60clb, 78clb, Flowers and Gardens by Jan Smith Photography Kkovaleva 148cr, Kav777 109clb (Tree), Kazakovmaksim 32ca, emer1940 100crb, Enviromantic 166r, Eyepark 119tr, 113cb, Shawn Hempel - Food 131ca, Frans Lanting Studio Kenishirotie 134cr, Kenmind76 135tl (pear), Khunaspix 171c, fcafotodigital / E+ 160c, Floortje 160cr, fotogaby / E+ 62–63, 119tl, Stephen French 137tr, Tim Gainey 86br, Bob Gibbons Liliia Khuzhakhmetova 171br, Kianlin 137ca, Sharon Kingston Griffin24 82–83c, joloei 147tr, Kynny 117br, lindarocks 107ca, 59r, 60clb (Outeniqua Yellowwood), 102cb (Ivy Broomrape ), 26crb, Klickmr 166cl, Sergey Kolesnikov 145cl, Kooslin 171cr lnzyx 112cb, lovelyday12 118r, malerapaso 67crb, Masuti 130l, 105tl, James Hackland 83r, Peter J. Hatcher 25crb, Urs (Hemp rope), Kostiuchenko 29tl, 29tl (flower), 29tl (poppy), Mickey_55 176c, Mikespics 23tl, milanfoto 152cra, Natefeldman Hauenstein 79tc, David Hayes 78cla, Hemis 171crb, Heritage Tetiana Kovalenko 104l, 175tl, Lev Kropotov 111cb, 175clb, 155tc, Ninell_Art 82bc, Only_Fabrizio 142clb, PicturePartners Image Partnership Ltd 178bl, HHelene 43bc, Historic Images Anna Kucherova 136cr, Tamara Kulikova 117cb, 138crb, 157clb, Pittapitta 174l, Ploychan 93ca, Portogas-D-Ace 147l, 179bl, Thomas Kyhn Rovsing Hjørnet 87bl, Friedrich von Wipark Kulnirandorn 106crb, Kurapy11 151tr, Andrey Rvimages 131bc, Sieboldianus 93r, 111tl, Sunnybeach 142cl, Hörsten 79cb, D. Hurst 179cra, Rachel Husband 138ca, Kurguzov 145clb, Denys Kurylow 58cb, 109cb (Evergreen Tacojim 123bl, tiler84 11cb, Toktak_Kondesign 40cr, imageBROKER 28bc, 59c, 68cla, 79c, 93c, 105tc, 110cb, Tree), Yauheni Labanau 7tc, 94cla, Kateryna Larina 107tl, UrosPoteko 155clb, Wushoung Wang 27clb, zlikovec 109crb; © 120–121, imageBROKER / Guenter Fischer 71l, Johner Images Muriel Lasure 43cb, Robert Lerich 148cla, Lesichkadesign Jeremy Rolfe (CC BY): 80ca; Jonas Dupuich/Bonsai 81crb, Kyselova Inna 153c, Interfoto 167c, blickwinkel / Jagel 109clb (Leaf), 154bc, Sergei Levashov 30–31c, Lightzoom 157tl Tonight: 124c; Farhad Karami: 21br; James Kuether: 60cb, 100c, Juniors Bildarchiv GmbH 105cr, Steven J. (Brush), Liligraphie 153tl, Lirtlon 178crb, Luckyphotographer 54–55; Mary Evans Picture Library: Library of Congress Kazlowski 92clb, Tamara Kulikova 36cla, Andrii Kutsenko 91tr, Ludoriri 116crb, Thomas Lukassek 86b, Natthapon M 124clb; Jim Mercer: 93cb; Susan Middleton: Photo by D. 176cb (Hibiscus), Hervé Lenain 113c, Shih-Hao Liao 117cla, 171clb, Robyn Mackenzie 66tc, Mahira 142crb (Almond), Liittschwager and S. Middleton, © 2000 76cb; Monterey Bay Pete Oxford / Nature Picture Library 18–19, Steve 166ca, Goncharuk Maksym 144clb (Red blood orange), Nursery: Luen Miller 52cb (Carrot Fern); NASA: Kennedy Gschmeissner / Science Photo Library 42bc, Margery Maskell Maocheng 157crb, Sarah Marchant 148ca, Massman 135br, Space Center 180–181, Marshall Space Flight Center 74cb; 46–47bc, mauritius images GmbH 82bl, 108–109t, 117cr, Buddy Josip Matanovic 94cb, Vivian Mcaleavey 152cla, Nicola National Geographic Creative: Michael Nichols 114–115; Mays 152bl, MCLA Collection 170bc, McPhoto / Diez 156cla, Messana 92cla, Microstock77 171cra, Barbara Delgado-millea naturepl.com: Miles Barton 83cl, Simon Colmer 94ca, Adrian Melba Photo Agency 26cla, MNS Photo 166cla, Jerome 5bl, 144clb, Miraswonderland 34clb, Maksim Mironov 102cr, Davies 34cla, 98cla, Chris Mattison 82br, 118c, MYN / Marko Moreaux 166cb, Hilary Morgan 178c, Robert Murray 81cb, Elena Moiseeva 154cl, Graham Monamy 99bc, Tanakorn Masterl 100cla, Niall Benvie / MYN 4br, 53bl, Colin Varndell Irina Naoumova 59ca, Jatesada Natayo 78c, National Moolsarn 171tr, Ruud Morijn 129cr, Msnobody 108ca, Tatiana 48cl; pflanzio.com: 53cla; Photo by Bryan Laughland: 61tr; Geographic Image Collection 15ca, 119ca, Natural Visions Muslimova 142clb (Mango), N Van D / Nataliavand 29r, Natika PhytoImages: Dr. Daniel L. Nickrent 102crb; Rex by 123bc, Nature Photographers Ltd 70bc, Nature Photographers 134clb, David Cabrera Navarro 166c (Tahini), Nbvf 152c, Neirfy Shutterstock: imageBROKER 93cla, Jspix / imageBROKER Ltd / Paul R. Sterry 113clb, blickwinkel / McPHOTO / NBT 28br, Pedro Turrini Neto 22c, Nevinates 135clb, 146c 70crb, Frederik / imageBROKER / Shutterstock 110ca; 61c, Neftali 177tr, SK Hasan Ali / Alamy Live News 157tl, Dean (Persimmon), Niceregionpics 146clb, Natthawut Nungensanthia Science Photo Library: Dr Keith Wheeler 15cb, Dr Morley Nixon 41bc, NPS Photo 105tr, Jose Okolo 105crb, Onehundred 130cb (Sorghum), Omidiii 142tr, Tatsuya Otsuka 116cla, Read 44–45, Eye Of Science 40ca, Michael P. Gadomski 59tc, Percent 81bl, George Ostertag 11ca, 103tc, 112crb, 113ca, Ovydyborets 35crb, 171cr, Palex66 145tr, Nipaporn Karl Gaff 49cb, Bob Gibbons 58cr, Steve Gschmeissner 28cb Panther Media GmbH 76bc, 87bc, Picture Partners 101c, Panyacharoen 175cb (Aloe vera), Bidouze St phane 109crb (Poppy seedling), M P Land 95tc, Cordelia Molloy 69clb, John Stefano Paterna 101cr, James Peake 71br, Thomas David (Rainforest), Photographieundmehr 138cla, 168cl, 169br, Serrao 61clb, Nigel Cattlin / Science Source 47cra, Merlin D. Pinzer 78crb, Premium Stock Photography GmbH 117c, Steve Photographyfirm 160cb, Anna Kucherova / Photomaru 169c, Tuttle 69tr; Jenn Sinasac: https: // www.flickr.com / photos Pridgeon 102c, Reda & Co Srl 52cb, Ian Redding 161cb, George Pikkystock 66crb, Pinkomelet 33cb, Chanwit Pinpart 94c, / jennsinasac 25cr (Used Thrice on the spread); Rituraj Singh: Reszeter 25cb, RF Company 129bl, robertharding / Jack Pipa100 57tr, 137cb (Oca), 145crb, 149cl, 153cr, 156cra, 190tl, 176cra; SuperStock: Age Fotostock K22-216517 47cr, Jackson 164–165b, RZAF_Images 40c, Kjell Sandved 176ca, Pixbox77 171tc, Pixelife 25clb, Planctonvideo 127cra, Andrii Biosphoto 27r, 85c, 112ca, Eye Ubiquitous 14–15c, J M Barres David Sewell 24tl, shapencolour 95cb, Shoot Froot 142crb, Pohranychnyi 175cb, Olga Popova 49cla, Saran Poroong 38–39, / age fotostock 58crb, Juniors 84cr; Wellcome Collection Ppy2010ha 136cla, Anastasiia Prokofyeva 21crb (Dicot), http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/: Science Artaporn Puthikampol 66tl, Ra3rn 28ca, Radu Borcoman / Museum, London 49cra Radukan 49ca, Rbiedermann 33br, 76br, Romasph 136cl, All other images © Dorling Kindersley rRawlik 107r, Somphop Ruksutakarn 147crb, Sergey Rybin For further information see: www.dkimages.com 48bl, Thongchai Saisanguanwong 177tl, Roman Samokhin