Trees, Leaves, Flowers and Seeds A Visual Encyclopedia of the Plant Kingdom (Sarah Jose)

smithsonian WRITTEN BY DR. SARAH JOSE CONSULTANT DR. CHRIS CLENNETT FLOWERS & SEEDS TREES, LEAVES, A VISUAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

DK DELHI Senior Editors Anita Kakar, Bharti Bedi, Rupa Rao Senior Art Editor Shreya Anand Editorial team Arpita Dasgupta, Bipasha Roy Art Editors Baibhav Parida, Debjyoti Mukherjee Assistant Art Editors Sifat Fatima, Sanya Jain Jacket Designer Tanya Mehrotra Jackets Editorial Coordinator Priyanka Sharma Senior DTP Designer Harish Aggarwal DTP Designers Jaypal Chauhan, Ashok Kumar, Vijay Kandwal, Mohammad Rizwan, Vikram Singh, Rakesh Kumar Senior Picture Researcher Sumedha Chopra Picture Researchers Aditya Katyal, Vishal Ghavri Picture Research Manager Taiyaba Khatoon Managing Jackets Editor Saloni Singh Pre-production Manager Balwant Singh Production Manager Pankaj Sharma Managing Editor Kingshuk Ghoshal Managing Art Editor Govind Mittal DK LONDON Senior Editor Ashwin Khurana Senior Art Editor Rachael Grady US Editor Jennette ElNaggar US Executive Editor Lori Cates Hand Jacket Designer Surabhi Wadhwa-Gandhi Jacket Editor Emma Dawson Jacket Design Development Manager Sophia MTT Producer, Pre-production Andy Hilliard Senior Producers Jude Crozier, Mary Slater Managing Editor Francesca Baines Managing Art Editor Philip Letsu Publisher Andrew Macintyre Art Director Karen Self Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf First American Edition, 2019 Published in the United States by DK Publishing 1450 Broadway, Suite 801, New York, NY 10018 Copyright © 2019 Dorling Kindersley Limited DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC 19 20 21 22 23 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 001–310149–Sept/2019Allrightsreserved. Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-1-4654-8242-6 DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 1450 Broadway, Suite 801, New York, NY 10018 PrintedSpecialSales@dk.comandboundinChina A WORLD OF IDEAS: SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW www.dk.com Established in 1846, the Smithsonian—the world’s largest museum and research complex—includes 19 museums and galleries and the National Zoological Park. The Smithsonian is a renowned research center, dedicated to public education, national service, and scholarship in the arts, sciences, and natural history. Smithsonian Gardens, an accredited museum and Public Garden, engages people with plants and gardens, informs on the roles both play in our cultural and natural worlds, and inspires appreciation and stewardship of living and archival collections and horticultural artifacts. CONTENTS The plant kingdom 10 What is a plant? 12 How do roots work? 14 What is a stem? 16 Living bridges 18 How do seeds grow? 20 Seed shapes 22 Scattering seeds 24 Spreading without seeds 26 The life cycle of a plant 28 What is a leaf? 30 Simple leaves 32 Compound leaves 34 Plants with patterns 36 Symmetrical swirls 38 Self-defense 40 Plants and nitrogen 42 THE WORLD OF PLANTS 8 Nonflowering plants 46 Ancient plants 48 What is a fern? 50 Fern fronds 52 Dinosaur diet 54 What is a conifer cone? 56 Pines and needles 58 Conifer cones 60 PLANTSNONFLOWERING 44 FOREWORD 6

What is a flower? 64 Flower forms 66 Pollinators 68 Looks familiar 70 River of blossom 72 A garden of roses 74 Crazy for daisies 76 Ingenious orchids 78 Blossoms and bulbs 80 What’s that smell? 82 Living in water 84 Along the river 86 Flooded forest 88 What is a cactus? 90 Cool cacti 92 Desert survivors 94 Desert bloom 96 Meat-eating plants 98 Poisonous plants 100 Parasitic plants 102 Mountain life 104 Creepers and climbers 106 What is a tree? 108 Types of trees 110 Barking up the tree 112 Standing tall 114 Blossom time 116 Living on air 118 Strangler fig 120 The forest floor 122 Bonsai 124 What is a grass? 126 Types of grasses 128 Grasses and grains 130 Rice terraces 132 Fruit or vegetable? 134 PLANTSFLOWERING 62 Plants and people 164 The spices of life 166 Helpful herbs 168 Plant products 170 Shrinking forest 172 Natural beauty 174 Plants of the world 176 Plant science 178 Space garden 180 LIVING PLANTSWITH 162 GLOSSARY 182 PLANT INDEX 184 INDEX 188 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 192 Going underground 136 Soft fruits 138 Volcanic vineyard 140 Stone fruits 142 Juicy fruits 144 Tropical fruits 146 Magnificent melons 148 A bit nutty 150 Eat your greens! 152 Peas and beans 154 All squashed up! 156 Pumpkin boat race 158 Bulbs, stems, and stalks 160

This amalgamation of disciplines is what first attracted me to the profession and has held my interest for more than 40 years. This volume brought me back to Hort Studies 101, with each chapter examining different plants, their parts, and how they interact with the world around them. Thankfully, the photographs used reveal details—ranging from tangled roots to distinctive seed and flower shapes—that surpass the old transparency sheets used by my professors.

Austrianpine Forget-me-not

Plants are essential for life. They make our planet’s atmosphere breathable, their decaying bodies create the soil under our feet, and they transform light energy into consumable nutrients that keep us alive. They also inspire artists; think of Georgia O’Keeffe’s Poppies, Claude Monet’s Water Lilies, and Vincent van Gogh’s Sunflowers

Tropical p itcherplant Cornflower T hai basil

Trees, Leaves, Flowers & Seeds combines the art and science of plants, revealing complex botanical details in beautiful photographs and simple graphics. While previewing this book, I wondered where it was when I was a child interested in learning more about plants. It reminded me why I began my career in horticulture. At its most basic level, horticulture is the science and art of growing plants.

Similar to Trees, Leaves, Flowers & Seeds, Smithsonian Gardens combines art and science in its many diverse garden and landscape exhibits. While their beauty is often what initially attracts visitors, the science they embody showcases our living collections and provides Star fruit

FOREWORD

depths of engagement with our audiences. Our gardens are delightful examples of performative art. They change every season, indeed every day, of their existence. Smithsonian Gardens’ staff horticulturists and gardeners are extraordinarily knowledgeable when it comes to plant science, yet so much of their work evolves into genuine artistry thanks to their natural skill in combining living collections. Perhaps the fascinating information and engaging photographs in Trees, Leaves, Flowers & Seeds will launch an inquisitive child’s journey into the mesmerizing world of plants. Child = 4 3 ⁄4 ft (1.45 m) tall School bus = 36 ft (11 m) wide Hand = 6 in (16 cm) long Throughout this book, you will find scale boxes that show the sizes of plants compared to either a child, a school bus, or a human hand. Cynthia Brown Smithsonian Gardens Education and Collections Manager Echeveria Angel wings HollyDwarf pomegranate Radicchio Dragon f r uit

THE WORLD OF PLANTS

Littlebluestem Commonliverwort StifclubmossStarmoss Smoothhornwort

Nonflowering plants These are the oldest plants and include ferns and mosses, which reproduce using spores. Conifers, which produce naked (not enclosed) seeds, also belong to this group.

10 plantsofworldThe

There are around 400,000 different types of plants, and botanists—scientists specializing in plants— discover new ones all the time. Hundreds of millions of years ago, the first plants were small and did not flower. Over time, the process of evolution has created a fantastic range of plants, from simple ferns to stunning cherry blossoms and spiky cacti. To bring order to this incredible variety, botanists divide up plants into nonflowering and flowering plants. Within these categories, there are many species, and some of them are shown here. kingdomplant LycopodsMosses Hornworts

The

GrassesDaisies Liverworts

Figarodahlia

Coconutpalm SnowpeaChineserose Oldmanofthe Andes Vanda Softtreefern Lupine

Dicots Dicots have two seed leaves, which appear together when a new plant starts to grow. They mostly have broad leaves. Dicots include daisies, roses, cacti, and legumes. Lodgepolepine

11 kingdomplantThe PLANT KINGDOM Flowering plants Angiosperms, or flowering plants, make up more than 90 percent of all plants. They produce seeds that are protected by a hard casing. Ferns Gymnosperms Angiosperms Roses Cacti Legumes Orchids Palms Monocots Monocots have just one seed leaf, which grows into a new plant. They often have long, narrow leaves. Grasses, orchids, and palms are examples of monocots.

Not a plant

What is a plant?

Plants come in all shapes and sizes—from tiny green mosses to giant trees—but almost all plants contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. This chemical harnesses the energy of sunlight to make the food (a sugar called glucose) that the plant needs to grow. As part of this process, called photosynthesis, plants take carbon dioxide gas from the air and turn it into food, while releasing oxygen, which all animals need to breathe.

Lichens A lichen is made up of algae and fungi living together. The algae help make food, while the fungi provide shade. Corals Corals are tiny, underwater animals with hard skeletons. To grow, they depend on algae in their tissues to make energy from sunlight. Algae Many algae are green, like plants, but do not have true roots, stems, and leaves. Algae can live only in water. Fungi Unlike plants, fungi get their food from the soil, or from other plants and animals on which they grow.

Tendril ❯ This plant has a special stem, called a tendril, which wraps around nearby objects, helping support the plant.

12 plantsofworldThe

Flower ❯ This colorful part of the plant contains the male and female cells that are responsible for producing seeds.

This cucumber plant uses flowers to reproduce and make seeds for new plants. However, not all plants have flowers—simple plants, such as mosses and conifers, reproduce in other ways. It is sometimes difficult to tell what is a plant and what is not—seaweed and fungi, for example, are not plants.

Fruit ❯ A fruit contains the plant’s seeds, protecting them from harm. Colorful fruits attract animals to eat them and then spread the seeds in their droppings.

Flowering plant

Leaf ❯ This is the power station of a plant. Leaves use sunlight to make the energy the plant needs to grow.

Stem ❯ The stem supports the plant. It can be short or tall, woody or nonwoody. Cucumberplant

Root ❯ Plants use their roots to anchor themselves to the ground. Roots also draw water and nutrients from the soil to keep the plant alive.

Taproot ❯ onegrow,tostartsseedaAs theintodownpushrootsstrongmoreor growsitandtaproot,plant’stheisThissoil. asideparticlessoilforcingtip,itsatonly deepergrowsitascaproottoughawith ground.theintoanchorwhichroots,haveplantsMost upsoakRootsground.theinplantthe thewithalongsoil,thefromwatervital tousesplantthethatmineralsdissolved roots,fibrousoftuftshaveGrassesgrow. oneleastatgrowplantsothermostbut lateralsmallersproutsthenwhichtaproot, outward.spreadthatroots(side)doHow roots work? Burdock root Leaf ❯ energytheuseleavesplant’sA Watersugar.maketosunlightfrom androotsthethroughupdrawnis thefromdownmovessapsugary growth.plant’sthepoweringleaves,

rootLateral ❯ outbranchrootsspindlyThese complex,aformtotaprootsmainthefrom roots.ofnetworktangled hairRoot ❯ fromsprouthairsrootTiny eachoftipgrowingtheabovejust particlessoilbetweengrowTheyroot. mineralsandwatertheabsorband grow.toneedsplantthethat rootsofTypes Aerial forests,tropicalintypicallyplants,Some toclingthatrootswithtreetopstheingrow pearlAmericanThesupport.forbarktreethe airmoisttheinhangthatrootsgrowslaceleaf water.essentialabsorbto Buttress aretreesforestraintropicalMany partlyoutspreadthatrootsbysupported mostbecauseisThisground.theabove theseanddeepverynotissoilforestrain tree.theanchorhelprootssurface Stilt tidalmuddyongrowingMangroves tide.highatwavesbysweptareseashores rootsstiltlikehavetreesmangroveMany helptotrunkstheirfromdownarchthat water.movingtheinthemsupport fromgrowhairsRoot cellsskinroot’sthe pink).inhere(seen Pneumatophore waterlogged,inRooted ingrowtreesmangrovethesemud,airless water.(salty)brackishsubtropicalswampy, intoupwardsgrowthatrootshaveSome oxygen.gathertoairthe

What is a stem?

Creeper stem ❯ Young English ivy stems are soft and flexible, with tiny anchoring roots to help it climb. As the plant grows, the stems grow thicker and harder, sending out side shoots to explore new spaces.

enacSugar

A stem is like a plant’s backbone, holding it up and connecting its roots, leaves, flowers, and fruits. It raises the leaves toward the sunlight so they can make food, which is then transported by the stem to the rest of the plant. It also carries water and nutrients up from the roots. There are many different types of stems, from soft, green stems to hard tree trunks.

English ivy

Tough stem ❯ This tall grass supports itself with a tough stem. Special tissues running down the stem transport the sugar made in its leaves to other parts of the plant. Sugarcane stems hold a lot of sugar, which can be harvested and dried to produce the sugar that we eat.

NonwoodystemstemtransportingwoodystrongTough,barkCoreofstemTissuewaterThinouterlayer

Soft stem ❯ The nonwoody stems of many smaller plants are soft and green. They support the plant, while transporting water and nutrients.

Sweet sap suckers

Small bugs called aphids puncture stems to suck out the sweet, nutrientrich liquid transported inside it. These insects don’t usually kill the plant but can often slow down its growth and carry diseases that might harm it.

Woody

spongytransportingTissuesugarSoft,layerTissuetransportingsugarTissuetransportingwater

Woody stem ❯ Trunks and branches are woody stems, which are stiff and strong to provide support for tall trees. The live tissue (cambium) is protected by an outer covering of dead bark. These stems expand by producing new layers of woody tissue each year—the growth rings that can be seen in cut tree trunks.

hazelCorkscrew roseSun

Types of stems There are many types of stem. Woody stems contain two layers of tissue—one transports water, and the other food in the form of sugar. In nonwoody stems, these tissues are combined into tubes. Woody stems are protected by thickened bark, while nonwoody stems are covered by a thin, protective tissue layer.

LIVING BRIDGES

The state of Meghalaya in northeast India is one of the wettest regions in the world, with almost 39 ft (12 m) of rainfall each year. The rains flood the rivers, making travel difficult, but the local Khasi Tribe came up with a clever way to stay connected with other villages. Using the roots of the rubber fig tree, they built strong, living bridges that can hold up to 50 people at once.

This type of bridge is made by twisting the aerial roots (roots that grow above ground) of rubber fig trees around temporary bridges made of bamboo or tree trunks, which then rot away over time. Once the tree roots reach the other side of the river, they are planted into the ground so they can grow thicker and stronger. It can take about 15–20 years to build a living bridge, which can grow to more than 164 ft (50 m) in length. The strongest living bridges are more than 100 years old, with some believed to be more than 500 years old. This double-decker bridge in Cherrapunji is more than 180 years old, and the local people are now adding a third level to it to attract more tourists.

Plants are rooted to the spot, so to reproduce and spread, flowering plants make seeds from which new plants grow. A seed contains a tiny young plant called an embryo, which lies dormant (inactive) until it senses the perfect conditions to germinate and grow into a new plant.

Germination ❯ A seed lies dormant until it detects moisture and warmth. It then absorbs water from the soil, and the seed springs to life, in a process known as germination. First root ❯ Most seeds begin germination by sending a root downward into the soil. The root absorbs water and nutrients from the soil and passes them on to the developing shoot.

The right conditions Young shoot ❯ Next, a young shoot emerges from the seed, growing upward until it breaks out of the soil. It quickly begins to make food using sunlight.

How grow?seedsdo

Seeds need ideal conditions—warmth, air, and water—to germinate. Some need darkness to sense they are properly buried. Others need light to know they are not buried too deep.

plantsofworldThe

There are two main types of flowering plants—monocots and dicots—named for the number of seed leaves they have. Monocot seeds contain one seed leaf, while dicot seeds have two. Sometimes seeds germinate before they have parted from their parent plant. This early germination may take the form of shoots growing on the outside of a fruit, as on this strawberry. In other fruits, shoots may even burst through the fruit wall from the seeds held inside. Corn (monocot)seed

Seed leaves ❯ The first leaf, or pair of leaves, in a flowering plant often looks very different to the true leaves the seedling will grow later. This is because the seed leaves were part of the embryo that lived inside the seed.

Thestem.root has fine hairs to help it absorb even more water. Inside a seed The first true leaves will grow from this growing shoot point. A hard seed coat protects the embryo from damage. The root of the embryo grows first. Seed leaves take up much of the space inside the seed.

One leaf or two? Early germination A seed is a perfectly packaged baby plant, called an embryo, protected by a hard outer coat. The embryo has a root and a shoot, and the first true leaves. It also has a food store for the embryo in “seed leaves.”

Inside a seed

Germinating seed monocotGerminatingseed (dicot)Bean Germinatingdicotseed

Two broad seed leaves grow out of a dicot seed. A single seed leaf emerges from the tip of the shoot. The seed case still clings to the young plant as it emerges from the ground. New leaves will form at the top of the

Corn Black seeds have a whiteheart-shapedpatch. Wide, thin wings help this seed glide for hundreds of feet.Yellow kernels are rich in vitamins.

Coriander

The giant coco de mer seed is able to hold a lot of nutrients so that the new plant has enough energy to grow out of its mother’s shadow. The poppy has another survival strategy—rather than one big seed, it produces tens of thousands of tiny seeds to maximize its chances. The spiky coats of the horse chestnut seed and the kiaat seed pod

Odd-shapedseeds are about 2–3across.mm

Coffee Almost all the grain is filled with starchy tissue. This curved, bumpy fruit is filled by a single, curved seed.

Seed shapes

2222

Pomegranate

Avocado

PoppyBeetBarleyLove in a puff marigoldPot

Hairy-leafedapitong Bright red wings grow up to 4 in (10 cm) long. Small, dry fruits are used as a spice. Wrinkled, oval seeds are known as stones or pits. Sunflower Hundreds of seedlike fruits are produced per flower head.

A seed is a small package that protects a young plant and contains all the nutrients the plant will need to germinate. Although all seeds do the same job, they come in a wide range of shapes and sizes, to help each one survive in its particular environment and spread without being eaten by hungry animals.

Two coffee seeds, or beans, are produced in each red fruit of the coffee plant.

Peach Kiaat Magnified view Tiny,seedskidney-shaped are less than 1 mm in length.

This round seed grows up to 2½ in (6.5 cm) long. A circular, papery wing surrounds this spiky seed pod. A juicy, red coat eachsurroundsseed.

Lentils

Sometimes, what we think of as seeds are, in fact, fruits with seeds inside, including those of the sunflower , coriander , and pot marigold

These massive seeds are the largest and heaviest in the world, weighing up to 39 ½ lb (18 kg) each. circular seeds are a good protein.

Flat,

CocodemerchestnutHorse Javan cucumber

source of

deter hungry animals, while other seeds, such as those of the avocado and peach , are too hard for most plant eaters to munch.

These glossy seeds are protected by a spiky shell.

When shaken, lotus seeds fall from the dried seed pod and into the lake or pond in which the plant grows.

Juicy berries are eaten by harvest mice, which pass the seeds in their poo.

i onBlackberryLotus

plantsofworldThe seedsScattering

Plants are anchored by roots and can’t move from one place to another. If they dropped their seeds where they stood, the new plants would be in competition for nutrients and sunlight. So plants have developed many ways to make sure their seeds scatter far and wide to take advantage of new places in which to grow. They use exploding seed pods, animals, the wind, or even water to spread their seeds.

Spiky burdock seeds can grow up to 1 in (3 cm) across. Between 90 and 110 feathery bristles radiate outward to form a parachute on every seed.Burdock Dandel

Coconut Norway maple thistleMilk Acorn Coconut fruits are salt-proof and float on seawater.

Alder

Cuipo seeds have five wings, which make them spin as they fall.

Up to 200 seeds can be produced by a single flower.

Wind and water carry seeds farthest. Dandelion and milk thistle seeds have parachutes that carry them on the breeze, while maple and cuipo seeds catch the wind as they fall from the tree canopy. Amazingly, coconut seeds can travel hundreds of miles on ocean currents. Animals are also important seed spreaders.

Burdock seeds are covered in hooks that get caught in animal fur and transported. Squirrels bury hundreds of acorns each fall to eat in winter. The ones they forget about germinate into new oak trees.

Single-winged seeds spin like helicopter rotors.

25

When animals eat fruit, the undigested seeds inside the fruit pass through their droppings.

Acorns are essential fall food for many animals, from squirrels and woodpeckers to deer, pigs, and bears.

Cuipo When the flower head dries out, it releases seeds with silvery parachutes.

Cuipo plants sprout as soon as their seeds land on the forest floor.

Woody scales of the female catkin (flower spike) open up to release seeds.

Spreading underground stems are partially visible through a thin layer of soil. Each leaf can produce dozens of tiny plantlets.

Plants such as mint, strawberry, and bamboo send out long stems, either just below or on top of the soil, which can put down roots and grow into whole new plants. The creeping underground stems, or rhizomes, of some irises also send up new plants as they spread. Other plants, such as sweet potatoes, produce underground storage

stemsUnderground can send out new shoots around the mother plant. Tiny plantlets with roots form along the fleshy leaves.

26 withoutSpreadingseeds

Iris Plantlet Mint Mother ofthousands

plantsofworldThe

Some plants have evolved ways to spread quickly over an area without seeds. To do this, they make perfect copies of themselves using modified stems, forming underground storage organs, or growing baby plants on the margins of their leaves.

Beech Stems grow from the base of the old tree.

Parent plantNew plant Runners lay down roots before new plants can grow. Bamboo

STEM RUNNERS

Undergroundstems spread quickly, sending up new shoots.

Sweet potato

Strawberry organs called tubers. If harsh weather kills off their leaves, new plants can regrow from the starchy tuber, using it for food. Spider plants grow new leaves at the tips of their hanging flower stems, which quickly grow roots when they detect that they

Plantlets grow on dangling stems. These stems grow roots and then leaves to independentbecomeplants. New bamboo shoots can grow up to 35 in (90 cm) in a day. Parent plant sends out horizontal stems along the soil.

Fleshy root tubers are popular starchy foods. are touching the ground. The mother of thousands plant takes this even further, producing tiny plantlets, complete with roots, along the edges of its leaves. These eventually drop off the mother plant and grow around its base.

The strawberry plant produces long stems called runners that run along or just under the soil. New strawberry plants grow at the knots, or nodes, on the runners, quickly colonizing an area with good soil.

New shoots grow from marks called “eyes.”

Spiderplant

1 Seeds lie (inactive)dormantwaiting for the right conditions to germinate.

3 Seedlings begin to produce leaves to gather light and more roots to absorb water from the soil to help them grow.

8 The developsfruit and ripens. New seeds are dispersed by the wind, and the cycle starts again.

High in the cold Andes Mountains of South America, the queen of the Andes plant grows very slowly. It takes over 80 years to bloom and grows a spike nearly 30 ft (10 m) tall, with up to 30,000 flowers, dwarfing the surrounding plants. After shedding millions of seeds, it dies. Late bloomer

2 Germination begins when there is enough water, warmth, and light for the seeds to sprout their first root and then a shoot.

4 Flower buds develop. In plants that flower every year (annuals) such as poppies, the bud can form within a few weeks of germination.

28 plantsofworldThe

The acyclelifeofplant

Flowering plants may have a life span of just months, or many years. A poppy will germinate, flower, set seed, and die within a year and is known as an annual plant. Other flowering plants live for several years, building up the food reserves they need and storing it. These are called perennial plants. The harsher the climate, the longer it can take for a plant to complete its life cycle.

29

5 Protected within the green sepals (leaf-shaped, and sometimes hairy, structures at the base of a flower), the bud grows colorful petals. When the flower is ready to open, the petals burst out.

7 As soon as a flower is pollinated, it sheds its petals. Seeds form inside the fruit.

6 Once the petals open up, insects, such as bees, are attracted to the sweet nectar inside and pollinate the flower.

Poppy

Stomata ❯ Tiny pores on the underside of the leaf, called stomata, open during the day to take in carbon dioxide but close at night to avoid losing too much water.

Blade ❯ The flat part of the leaf is called the leaf blade. It is the green tissue that absorbs sunlight to make the sugar the plant needs to grow. Small netted veins ❯ Networks of tiny veins connect the green tissues of the leaf to the main vein inside the midrib and the stem beyond.

30 plantsofworldThe

Leaves are usually flat, green structures that grow from plant stems. Although they come in many shapes and sizes, almost all of them capture sunlight and produce food for the plant. Leaves get their green color from a pigment called chlorophyll that uses sunlight to produce food from the plant in a process called photosynthesis.

What is a leaf?

Petiole ❯ This is the stiff stalk connecting the leaf to the plant stem. In some plants, these stalks can help leaves move and follow the sun in order to absorb more light.

Undersideofappleleaf

PhotosynthesisFallleaves

Vein ❯ Plant veins have two types of tubes running through them. One type, called xylem, carries water from the roots to the shoots. The other type, known as phloem, transports sugars around the plant.

As fall approaches, the green pigment chlorophyll is replaced at a slower rate than it is used up. The reduced chlorophyll levels mean other leaf pigments, including orange-yellow ones, become more obvious. At the same time, plants start producing red-purple pigments. These changes result in the beautiful fall displays of leaf colors. Maple leaves in fall Carbon dioxide enters the leaf. Sugar is produced in green leaf tissues. Water and minerals are absorbed through the roots and uptransportedthestem.

Midrib ❯ Running along the center of the leaf, this thickened area contains the central vein. It also provides support to the leaf to prevent it from bending and breaking. Plants make their own food in a process called photosynthesis. Their leaves contain a lightharvesting pigment called chlorophyll. This green chemical uses the sun’s energy to convert carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil into food (in the form of sugars) and oxygen.

Sunlight provides the energy needed for photosynthesis.Oxygenisreleasedasaby-product.

Appleleaf

Swiss-cheeseplant

Holly Sugar maple leaves turn red before falling in autumn. Circular Englishivy

Leaves develop large holes as the plant ages, and can grow up to 35 in (90 cm) long.

Simple leaves come in many shapes and sizes, and those best suited to their habitat are the most likely to thrive. In wet rain forest conditions plants have big leaves, while plants in drier locations usually have small leaves. Some plants, such as English ivy and ginkgo, change their leaf shape

shapedSpearDandelion Sugarmaple

A leaf typically consists of a flat surface called a blade, which carries a network of veins. These veins support the leaves and transport the water and minerals to them from the rest of the plant. A simple leaf has a single, undivided blade.

32 plantsofworldThe leavesSimple

Amazonian water lily Circular Divided Palm-shaped Oval-shaped Heart-shaped Young leaves have five sharp points, while older leaves are rounder. These jagged leaves contain a bitter milky sap called latex. Spiky edges protect the leaves from grazing animals. Nasturtium Veins grow from the stalk at the center of the leaf.

Thin, bladelike leaves are common in grass plants. English oak leaves, which can grow up to 4 in (10 cm) long, turn brown and fall off in the autumn. Jagged edges are more common in leaves from colder countries. Englishoak

The Swiss-cheese plant and elephant’s ear grow in rain forests so have waxy, pointy leaves to help rainwater run off. Another rain forest plant, the Amazonian water lily, has giant leaves that spread across lakes to capture as much sunlight as possible. Although the reasons remain unclear, scientists believe the jagged leaf edges of sugar maple and silver birch may help keep them slightly warmer than smooth edges would, allowing the plants to grow faster in cool spring weather.

Divided Silver birch Waxy leaves repel water, so rainwater flows quickly off this rain forest plant. This leaf contains a toxic oil to avoid being eaten by predators. Veins branch out like a fan instead of forming a network. These giant leaves grow up to 9 ft (3 m) across.

Triangular Fan-shapedLance-shaped

Wheat Ginkgo

33 as they grow and get more access to sunlight.

shapedArrow-Linear

Elephant’sear

Eucalyptus

Lupine Multiple leaflets Divided into an even number of leaf lets Dividedtwice Feathery leaves turn a golden yellow in the fall. leafletsTwo Oval leaflets fold up at night and open during the day.

34 plantsofworldThe leavesCompound

Rounded lupine leaves have up to 17 leaflets. Leaflets fold shut in about three seconds if touched.

S t inking toe Tamarind

A compound leaf is one that is divided into two or more parts called leaflets. These leaflets grow either along the stalk like a feather or from a single point like a fan. Compound leaves come in a wide range of shapes and sizes.

A compound leaf has separate leaflets with less individual surface area than a simple leaf. In a dry region, this helps the plant to reduce the amount of water lost through evaporation. Compound leaves, like that of the lupine, flutter less in windy conditions than simple leaves,

Shiny green leaflets look like a cow’s toes, but this plant gets its name from its stinky fruit. likeArrangedaclosed fan when young; the lupine’s leaves unfold as it grows.

Sensi t ive plant

Four leafletsheart-shaped grow from a single stalk. leafFourlets Silvery undersides of the leaves give this fern its name. 82 ft (25 m) long Flat leaf stalk looks like a second leaf below the true leaf. Raffia palm leaves grow a schoolasthanlong—more82whoppingft(25m)twicelongasabus. Raffia palm leaf

A whitish, V-shaped band is typical in white clover leaflets. Veins from the main leaf stalk run eachthroughleaflet. Horse chestnutPomelo cloverWhite

35

Four-leavedpinksorrel

Silverfern Divided twice

FiveLeafleafletsstalk (bottom) looks like true leaf Divided into an odd number of leaf lets LEAF

Three leaflets making them less likely to break off. Having compound leaves can also help the plants avoid being eaten. Leaflets of the sensitive plant quickly fold up if touched by hungry animals, while tamarind leaflets close up at night to appear smaller and less tasty to plant eaters.

Honey

LONGEST

Some compound leaves grow very quickly, which helps trees, such as the honey locust, harness as much sunlight as possible before losing their leaves in the fall. The pomelo has a rare type of compound leaf with a flat stalk that looks like a second leaf, which also helps capture sunlight. locust

Butterfly agave

Flamingolily Geranium Virginia waterleaf

Angelwings

The lighter patches cannot make energy from sunlight, slowing the growth of this plant.

The stripescolor-breaking are caused by a viral infection.

White spots mimic water damage to protect the leaf against being eaten.

White marks look like damage done by a leaf-mining insect.

Gardeners have cultivated plants with patterned leaves and flowers because they look beautiful. The outlined leaves of the butterfly agave and holly and the attractive flowers of geranium, flamingo lily, and dahlia are very rare

Tulip

Multicolored plants—also known as variegated plants—are popular with gardeners but are rare in nature. It’s the green parts of the leaves that trap sunlight to harvest its energy, so white or yellow patches slow plant growth down.

Areas over the veins do not make the red coloring, or pigment, so they look white.

These light pink flowers have deeper blotches of color on the upper two petals.

36 plantsofworldThe Plants patternswith

Purple-blue flowers are marked with white spots of different sizes and resemble a nightstarrysky.

Dahlia

Begonia Rose White patches do not have the ability to make color.

Prayerplant These spiky leaves are very hardy. The holly plant can grow up to 50 ft (15 m) in height.

37 in wild plants. In the 17th century, striped tulip flowers were very fashionable in the Netherlands and sold for huge amounts of money. It was later found that the delicate markings on the tulips were actually the result of a viral infection. Angel wings and Virginia waterleaf are among the few plants that have naturally patterned leaves. Both have white spots on their leaves, which make them appear damaged and less appetizing. This greatly reduces the chance of insects eating their leaves.

Prayer plant leaves come in many patterns, from mosaic to striped.

Begonias produce seeds so small they look like dust. Only the tips of this flower make the pink pigment. Petunia Holly The silvery patches can produce food, too, helping this plant grow.

SYMMETRICAL SWIRLS Twirl a sunflower around in your fingers and the pattern at the center of the flower head looks the same from every side. This is because the sunflower head is radially symmetrical—the florets form two sets of spirals starting at the same point somewhere in the center of the flower, before turning in opposite directions, one clockwise and the other counterclockwise.

Radial symmetry appears throughout the plant world, from daisies to pine cones. The spirals follow a pattern known as the Fibonacci sequence, named after the Italian mathematician who discovered it. In this sequence, each number is the sum of the previous two. The pattern starts 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and so on. The reason why Fibonacci numbers are common in nature is because this is the best way to pack the most flowers, leaves, or seeds into a tight space. A sunflower head is made up of many tiny florets—the dark rods in the picture are opened florets, while those in the center are unopened ones. Each new floret grows at an angle to the previous one, leaving no gaps and maximizing its exposure to pollinators.

Animals can run from their predators, but plants have no way of escaping hungry plant eaters. Instead, they have developed some clever ways of making themselves look and taste as unappealing or dangerous as possible, encouraging animals to look elsewhere for a meal. Plant defenses range from spiky thorns to toxic chemicals. agave Silver-gray Ant fern Spiky leaf edges protect succulent leaves. thorn These woolly leaves are difficult for insects to munch. These swollen parts provide hollow homes for ants that help ward off protectingpredators,theplant.

40 plantsofworldThe defenseSelf-

Tea leaves contain tannin, a bitter-tasting chemical that deters animals from eating them. them on the stem protect the plant from hungry animals.

Blue

an unpleasant mouthful. Fully thornsdeveloped may grow up to 2 1 ⁄4 in (6 cm) long. Spines

these

Needlelike crystals line the blue agave’s leaves, making

Camel

Tea

crystals earLamb’s Thistle

The stiff spines that cover the plant can be up to 2½ in (6.5 cm) long. Thorns grow up to 3 in (7 cm) long. Ants live inside these swollen thorns, protecting the plant from herbivores.

pointingDownward-prickles grow on the stems of roses to deter predators from climbing up.

oissaPnflower

41

Prickles are extensions of the stems of plants such as roses. Another plant defense strategy is the use of chemicals. Plants, such as tea, common milkweed, and blue agave, produce nasty-tasting or irritating chemicals to put off any animal that takes a bite. The spots on passion flower leaves are a clever defense called mimicry—the plant’s leaves pretend to be infested by butterfly eggs, which deters real butterflies from looking for a “healthy” leaf.

To deter predators, some plants, including the camel thorn, produce sharp branches called thorns, while others, such as gorse, make sharp leaves known as spines.

milkweedCommon thornWhistlingacacia Gorse RosenettleStinging

Stems and leaves are covered in tiny stinging hairs.

birdsSmallnest in gorsespiky bushes to protect themselves from predators. Buds contain yellow flowers with a coconut scent.

Stinging hairs

hairsNeedlelike can inject a painful mix of chemicals.

Leaf spots resemble yellow butterfly eggs.

The whitegummysap of this flowering plant is toxic to mammals.plant-eatingmany

Some bacteria in the soil can change nitrogen gas into ammonia, which can be turned into nitrates. Similar bacteria, called nitrogen-fixing bacteria, live in the roots of plants such as peas. Nitrogen gas enters the soil from the air. Lightning can also change nitrogen gas into nitrates.Plants absorb nitrates dissolved in the water that their roots soak up from the soil. They use the nitrates to make the proteins essential for growth. 3 1

Nitrogen cycle

Plants use the energy of sunlight to turn carbon dioxide and water into the sugars they need to help them grow. To do this, they also need proteins that contain nitrogen. Although this vital gas makes up two-thirds of the air we breathe, plants cannot absorb nitrogen from the air. Instead, they rely on tiny organisms in the soil to make nitrates both from the nitrogen in the air and from the decaying remains of living things.

plantsofworldThe

2

Plants nitrogenand

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria

All plants, animals, and other living things contain nitrogen. When they die, their remains are broken down by fungi and bacteria. This eventually forms nitrates, which plants can use to make proteins that can be eaten by animals. Nitrogen is recycled continuously between the air, soil, and living things in this way—a process called the nitrogen cycle.

5 6 7

Some kinds of bacteria in the soil turn nitrates back into nitrogen gas, which is released into the air.

nitrogenandPlants

If a plant is short of nitrogen, it cannot make enough protein and does not grow properly. It also cannot make enough of the chlorophyll that makes its leaves green, and the edges of its leaves turn pale or even yellow.

4

Nitrogen deficiency

Decomposing fungi

Nitrogen-deficient grape leaf

Animals, such as cows, eat plants. They digest the plant proteins to make the animal proteins their bodies need.

Animal waste, such as dung and urine, returns nitrogen-containing compounds that can be turned into nitrates to the soil. Some fungi and bacteria living in the soil feed on animal waste, or on the decaying remains of dead animals and plants. They break down nitratescompoundsnitrogen-containingtoreleaseintothesoil.

PLANTSNONFLOWERING

Moss life cycle 1. Scattering spores 2. Sex organs develop 4. Spore capsule grows 3. Fertilization plantsNonflowering Spore

The most ancient land plants on Earth are the nonflowering plants that evolved hundreds of millions of years ago. The earliest were simple plants such as liverworts, mosses, and hornworts, which grow in damp places to avoid drying out. Ferns are more complex but still have to live in moist environments. Instead of producing seeds, almost all nonflowering plants reproduce using tiny spores, which are carried away by wind or water. Only the gymnosperms, a group of nonflowering plants that includes conifers, produce seed-bearing cones instead.

A moss’s spore capsule releases spores into the wind. When they land, they grow into leafy shoots with tiny sex organs. When it rains, male sperm cells are able to reach eggs and fertilize them. Each fertilized egg grows a new shoot, and the cycle continues.

plantsNonflowering

Male Female Food factory ❯ The green leaflike part of this moss, called the gametophyte, produces food using energy from sunlight. It does not contain veins to transport water and nutrients, but its surface is so thin that these simply soak through. Raindrops allow male sperm cells to swim over to the eggs.

capsuleSpore-producingshoot

Sporophyte ❯ The sporeproducing, columnlike structure rising from the green body of the moss is a sporophyte. It starts to grow when a female egg cell is fertilized by a male sperm cell.

Liverwort The first land plants were the tiny liverworts, which appeared around 470 million years ago. Around 9,000 liverwort species exist today. Moss Mosses grow in fluffy clumps, often in shady areas. Although they may look similar, 12,000 different types of mosses exist around the world.

The thegreenunlikemosslikemossesbrownspore-producingspikesofclubareheldonstems,butmosses,thepartsaresporophytes.

Brown sporophytes do not make their own food, relying on the green gametophyte instead.

Capillarythreadmoss

Nonflowering plants

These humidityloving plants, which are named for their evensporophytes,horn-shapedcangrowunderwater.

Horsetails

47

Horsetails have thin, hairlike leaves that run up their stems like a bottlebrush, and produce spores in conelike structures at the stem tip.

Hornwort

Capsule ❯ A spore-producing capsule forms at the tip of each threadlike sporophyte. When the spores are mature, the lid of the capsule breaks off to reveal an opening, through which the spores are released. Every capsule contains hundreds of thousands of tiny spores, which are carried off on the wind.

Club moss

Glossy shoots give this plant its name. Common tam arisk moss

TwistedmossCommonkettlewort

The first animals lived in a world filled with plants, but this vegetation looked different to what we see around us today. The earliest dinosaurs would not have seen flowers, and the plant eaters would have chewed mosses and horsetails instead of grasses. Many of these ancient plants have disappeared, but some continue to thrive today.

Glitteringwoodmoss

Mosses absorb water and nutrients from rain and dust. These feathery shoots look like tiny fern fronds.

clubmossMarsh

Forest star moss Star-shaped shoots range from a yellow-green to a reddish brown color. stemsSpore-producing grow upright, allowing the spores to fly over a greater distance.

This tiny, leafy liverwort grows on damp soil.

plantsNonflowering plantsAncient

Cuplike structure conesSpore-producing grow at the tips of fertile stems. Morsetaileadow

Scientists study the common liverwort to learn how evolvedplants

Sphagnum moss is absorbent and very acidic, so it prevents the growth of bacteria and fungi. During World War I (1914–1918), bandages were sometimes wrapped around sphagnum moss and used as dressings for soldiers. This stopped their wounds from becoming infected and helped them heal faster.

The young plants growing inside these cups are splashed out by raindrops.

Common haircap liverwortCommon Spongelike moss can store huge amounts of water. These tiny upright stems look like little conifers.

The first land plants appeared around the same time as the first insects. The earliest liverworts, relatives of the common kettlewort and common liverwort, evolved about 470 million years ago. They did not have roots, stems, or flowers but lived in damp places and simply absorbed water through their surface. Later came hornworts and mosses, many of which had more complex, leaflike shoots, like those of the modern tamarisk moss and the glittering wood moss. Without veins to carry water and nutrients from the soil to the shoots, these plants remain small. However, club mosses and horsetails, such as the marsh clubmoss, fir clubmoss, and meadow horsetail, have veins running up their stems and so grow taller.

h

Each capsule produces thousands of tiny spores. This unusually tall moss can grow up to 15 3 ⁄4 in (40 cm).

Velvetfeather-moss

plantsAncient

Sphagnum bandage rollSphagnum Dressing made of sphagnum moss

Fir clubmoss HEALING MOSS

Root ❯ The roots of ferns are very similar to those of flowering plants. They absorb water and nutrients from the soil and help anchor the fern into the ground.

What is a fern?

Pinna ❯ Each small segment of a fern frond growing from the central stalk, or rachis, is called a pinna.

Male fern Frond ❯ Fern leaves are called fronds. These are usually divided into smaller sections, which increases the leaf’s surface area so it can capture more sunlight. Fronds not only carry out photosynthesis, using the energy from sunlight to make food for the fern, but they are also important for reproduction.

50 plantsNonflowering

Ferns are nonflowering plants that do not produce seeds. Instead, they reproduce using tiny spores, which are carried on the wind. Fern leaves are known as fronds, and they grow from underground stems. Spores are made on the underside of fronds.

Fiddlehead ❯ New fronds develop as tightly curled spirals called fiddleheads, which unfurl as the leaf grows.

Rachis ❯

Stipe ❯ The stiff stem at the bottom of the plant is known as the stipe. It is often covered with scales or hairs, for protection.

Pecopteris fern fossil Sori ❯ Spores are produced in brown structures called sori on the underside of the fronds. These sori can be arranged in speckles or lines, depending on the type of fern.

51 fern?aisWhat

Fossilized fern Ferns first appeared almost 360 million years ago, among mossy swamps. Some large, treelike ferns had fronds as long as 93 ⁄4 ft (3 m). The fossil below shows an extinct fern that looks very similar to modern ferns, such as the male fern.

The top part of the stalk is known as the rachis. It is the backbone of the frond.

The main stem of most ferns is known as the rhizome. It sits either on the soil’s surface or just below, although in some tree ferns the stems can develop into a tall, woody trunk. The fronds of the fern emerge from the rhizome, which is often too short to be seen.

The arrangementcomblikeof leaflets earns this fern its name Pecopteris—the Greek word for comb.

Rhizome ❯

Ferns are among the most primitive land plants. As most live on shady forest floors, they make large leaves, called fronds, to help them gather as much sunlight as possible.

Clumps of fronds grow from a short stem at the base.

lholyfern

This feather-shaped fern is native to much of Europe, Asia, and North America.

JapaneseHart’s tonguefern

Soft shield fern Treelikehabit

Softtreefern

Male fern

52 frondsFern

Many ferns share a distinctive leaf shape, with leaflets that divide, and then divide again. Ferns do not produce flowers. Instead, they grow tiny spores on the underside of their leaves, which are blown by the wind and eventually grow into new plants.

Furled fronds are known as fiddleheads because they look like the scrolls of violins.

Brown,specksspore-producing on the underside are called sori.

These simple fronds are said to look like deer tongues.

These glossy leaves can be heartarrow-shaped.or

recordsFossilshowthat ferns date back 360yearsmillion

. There are about 10,500 known species of ferns some of which have simple undivided fronds, such as those of the hart’s tongue fern and the heart leaf fern. Most are green, but a few have unusual colors, like the purple-veined, silvery leaves of the Japanese painted fern. In many species, the spore-producing brown regions on the underside of fronds are arranged in distinct patterns or shapes, such as the lines of speckles on the Japanese holly fern.

Leaf segments unfurl as the main stalk unrolls. The leaves of this fern are silvery in spring and green in summer.

Heart leaf fern Several fan-shaped leaflets form each frond.Common maidenhairfern

Ant fern

Thefrondsfeathery of this plantcarrotresembleleaves. cupsSpore-producing line the edges of each frond. The tall clumping leaves can unfurl to 67 in (170 cm) long. Tufts of bracken thrive in open forests and pastures.

Ostrichfern Carrotfern Bracken pJapaneseaintedfern

Bracken on forest floor

The tiny spores are usually carried away by the wind, although ants living in the hollow stems of the ant fern may also help this plant spread its spores.

DINOSAUR DIET Until about 140 million years ago, there were no flowering plants anywhere on Earth. Some gigantic plant-eating dinosaurs of the Jurassic period browsed in the treetops for the tough, fibrous foliage of pine trees that existed at the time. Others reached down to pluck the fronds of low-growing and nutritious ferns and horsetails.

During this time, the climate was warm and moist almost everywhere, with no polar ice. This encouraged the growth of dense forests of conifers, ginkgos, club mosses, cycads, and tree ferns that covered much of the land. Dinosaurs such as these two Diplodocus, which lived in what is now North America, had long, flexible necks for stretching high into the trees to feed. They could even rear up on their hind legs for extra height. Similar to modern elephants, they also would have broken down a lot of trees, creating open areas where smaller plants such as ferns could flourish. Diplodocus fed on these, too, combing the stems through their peglike teeth to strip away the green foliage and gulping it down without chewing.

Closed Austrian pine cone

56 plantsNonflowering

The tough scales enclose ovules, which form on thin scales inside. These soft scales carry pollen sacs that contain the pollen grains. Pollen sac Ovule Male cone Female cone

Closed cone scales ❯ The female cones contain ovules (clusters of female cells) that will develop into seeds if they are fertilized by pollen. Blown on the wind, the pollen grains are small enough to slip between the scales and enter each ovule.

Male and female cones

Most conifer trees have separate male and female cones. The long, soft male cones produce pollen, while the woody female cones contain ovules that will become seeds when fertilized. The pollen grains are tiny, like dust, so they are easily blown on the wind.

What is a cone?conifer

A conifer cone contains the male or female cells of conifer trees. In nonflowering plants such as pine trees, cones are the equivalent of a flower. The seeds of conifers are not contained in fruits but develop between the scales of the pollinated female cones. The scales protect the seeds until they are fully developed, then open up to release their seeds.

Tough, woody scales grow all around the cone. They open slightly to allow fertilization and then close again to protect the developing seeds.

Cross section of a female cone Seed ❯ Conifer seeds can take up to two years to mature. They are attached to thin scales that act like wings, allowing the seeds to be carried away in the wind when the time is right. Wingedseed

Open Austrian pine cone Other cone-bearing trees

57 cone?coniferaisWhat

Open cone scales ❯ When the seeds inside a cone are ready, dry weather triggers the cones to open up or even fall off the tree, so the wind can blow the seeds away.

Cycads Sometimes living for 1,000 years, these slow-growing, palmlike plants develop structures called strobili, which are similar to conifer cones.

Ginkgo These trees are either male or female. The males have pollen-bearing cones, but the females produce seeds that swell up to look like the fruits of flowering trees.

Welwitschia Found only in the Namib Desert in Africa, these plants are either male or female. Although not true conifers, the females have seed-bearing cones.

58 Pines and needles

The needles of pines, including those of the bristlecone pine and sugar pine, grow in clusters of two to five—each cluster from a single bud. Cedar needles, such as those of the Lebanon cedar, also grow in clusters, but these may contain 15–45 needles and are typically The pine family contains more than 200 types of conifer trees, including pines, firs, spruces, larches, and cedars. Although they may look similar, these cone-bearing trees have distinct patterns of needlelike leaves that can be used to tell them apart.

Bristlecone pines can live for more than 5,000 years

. Sacred fir dwarfSiberianpine Deodar cedar Atlas cedar Tufts of needles Needles can stay green for more than 45 years. Cedar needles contain oils used in perfumes and colognes. This Asian cedar has distinctive drooping branches. The smallest of all pines, this tree usually grows only up to 10 ft (3 m) in height. This tree gets its name from the use of its foliage during inChristmasMexico.

Bristlecone pine

This tall tree can grow rapidly, reaching more than 310 ft (95 m) in height. Short needles turn golden yellow and orange in fall. Needles grow in bunches of five and can be 4 in (11 cm) long.

This slow-growing but resilient tree has a life span of 150–600 years. This wide-spreading tree can reach up to 130 ft (40 m) in height. It is the national emblem of Lebanon and appears on its flag.

cedar Sitka Tamaracksprucelarch pineSugar Blue spruce Sharply Whorlsneedlespointedofneedles

Young silver fir trees are often used as Christmas trees in Europe.

shorter than pine needles. Firs, such as the European silver fir, have flat needles that grow individually from the branch. Spruces, including the blue spruce and the sitka spruce, have sharp four-sided needles. Larch needles are particularly unusual because, unlike most conifers, they are not evergreen but deciduous. In fall, the light blue-green needles of the tamarack larch change color before falling off, turning the wooded mountains glorious golden colors.

EuropeansilverfirLebanon

Male cones can take up to a year to ripen, turn brown, and release pollen.

Male pollen cones grow up to 6 in (15 cm) in length. These giant cones can weigh up to 11 lb (5 kg). Tightly closed woody cones face down on branches.

Europeanlarch

Each of these small yellow cones produces a single seed.

Common juniperKauri (male)Outeniqua yellowwood Coulter pine Zululand cycad

Wollemi pine(female)

Conifers have a few tricks for dispersing their seeds. Some, such as the Outeniqua yellowwood and common juniper, make fleshy, berrylike cones. Birds eat the cones and spread the seeds in their droppings. Other conifers need specific conditions for seed dispersal.

Red female cones sometimes grow 20 in (50 cm) long.

Lodgepolepine Monkey puzzle tree(male)

Thick, leathery leaves change color from bronze to green as they mature. Round, green cones turn purple when ripe.

Female cones produce seeds about 18 months after pollination. Young red cones turn brown before releasing seeds.

Conifer trees bear cones instead of flowers. All conifers have separate male and female cones, which sometimes grow on different trees. Male cones make pollen, while female cones, when pollinated, produce seeds. Cones come in many shapes, sizes, and colors, but all are pollinated by wind.

60 Conifer cones

Pineapplezamia

Scales open in dry conditions to release winged seeds up to 11 ⁄2 in (4 cm) long. The pink female cones of this spruce are 6 in (15 cm) tall and the largest of the spruces.

The sugar pine grows the world’s longest conifer cones—more than four times longer than a human hand. pollenColorfulcones are only 4 ⁄5 in (2 cm) long. (male)

conesConifer

Norwayspruce(female))te(epguSarinw

The female cones of the kauri break apart and release seeds when mature, while lodgepole pine cones do not open until they feel the strong heat of a fire. The female cones of the sugar pine open only in dry weather, so their light seeds are blown far and wide without moisture in the air weighing them down.

This soft-scaled cone grows up to 3 in (8 cm) long. Cones may have up”“armored to dinosaurspreventfromeatingthem.

)y(epgS(phcPitinemale)uarindr

Green cones produce bright orange seeds. These blue female cones stand upright on top of branches.

Atlascedar CONE SIZE cm)(66in26 Koreanfir

PLANTSFLOWERING

What is a flower?

Pollination A tiger lily has colorful petals and sugary nectar for animals such as this bee to eat. As it feeds, the bee brushes against the pollen, which sticks to its body. Pollen contains male cells. When the bee visits another tiger lily, the pollen will brush onto the new flower’s stigma, and grow towards the female cells. This is called pollination.

64

The fine yellow grains of pollen, found on a tubular structure called an anther, contain the plant’s male sex cells.

Colorful, often scented, petals attract pollinating animals to the flower. Petals come in all shapes and sizes and often look brighter to insect eyes than to human eyes. Stigma ❯ This is the female part of the flower and has either a sticky tip or fine hairs to trap pollen.

Pollen Stigma Stamen ❯ Each stamen has a long filament with an anther on the top where the pollen is produced. The ovule is fertilized by the pollen to become a new plant. Style

Pollen ❯

When pollen lands on a flower’s stigma, it grows a tiny tube that travels through the style, taking the male pollen cells to the ovary. The male cells join with female cells, in the ovules, which become the seeds. This process is called fertilization.

Many plants rely on animals, such as bees and hummingbirds, to help them reproduce. To attract these animals, many plants have flowers that are brightly colored, have a sweet scent, and produce a sugary nectar for them to eat. When the animal visits the flower to find the nectar, it becomes covered in pollen. The animal, known as a pollinator, then transports the pollen to another flower.

Fertilization

plantsFlowering

The ovary contains the female reproductive organs of the flower. A pollen tube grows down through the style.

Petals ❯

65 flower?aisWhat

Ovary ❯ This part of the flower contains female sex cells, which are fertilized by the pollen. After fertilization, the ovary develops into a fruit, with the seeds inside. Anther Pollen sticks to the hairs of visiting bees.

The style is the stalk that supports the stigma. A stalk supports the flower.

Nectar ❯ Many flowers produce a sweet liquid called nectar at the base of the petals to attract pollinators such as bees.

Some bees collect balls of pollen on their hind legs and transport it back to the hive for food.

Tiger lily Ovule

Flower forms

A beaklikegreen, bract protects the flowers. The budsflower at the top open last. The frangipanisweet-smelling is used to make flower necklaces in Hawaii. Red stamens make the flower look like a fluffy pompom.

Plants have flowers that come in a variety of sizes and colors. Botanists (plant scientists) study a flower’s shape to better understand how it may be pollinated, by bees, bats, birds, or a breeze!

Waxplan t

Thick, waxy petals can withstand tropical storms.

Primrose

Pale yellow flowers bloom all over Europe during spring.

66 plantsFlowering

Bird-of-paradise

Some plants, such as primrose, frangipani, and poppy, have simple, open flower shapes that are perfect for a quick visit from an insect. Others make dense clusters of flowers called inflorescences to provide more of a meal for pollinators. For example, the red powderpuff

Foxglove Bell-shaped Flat-topped tube Rotate Spherical Irregular Star-shaped Orange and purple flowers attract sunbirds, which stand on the thick green perch to access the sweet nectar.

FrangipaniRedpowderpuf f

insideSpotsthe flowersfoxgloveguide bees to the nectar.

Arumlily Redhotpoker

Poppy

Kingprotea Guelderrose

The delicate flower has a lovely, sweet fragrance. flowerCream-coloredspikes are up to 4 in (11 cm) across. Small flowers fill the center of these massive blooms, which can grow up to 12 in (30 cm) across. Four petalslarge form a cup shape. The petals change color from orange to yellow as they open.

formsFlower makes a ball of tiny stamens to attract bees and butterflies, while the king protea and red hot poker coat the faces of visiting birds with a dusting of pollen when they feed. The bird-of-paradise also provides a feast for visiting birds, covering their feet with pollen as they perch on the flower. Other plants make a special, often colorful, petal-like leaf called a bract, to attract many pollinators. Hummingbirds are drawn to the showy bracts of the pink quill, while the white bract of the arum lily attracts many insects.

Pink quill A hairy bud protects the growing flower. The stem of the guelder rose is smooth, not thorny like a true rose plant. A spike of tiny yellow flowers is surrounded by a white, petal-like bract.

Purple flowers grow from the edges of the pink bracts. Cup-shaped onflowersSmallspike Saucer-shaped Composite Funnel-shaped Pea-shaped Tube-shaped Sweetpea

Pygmypossum hawk-moth Hummingbird

yellowBell-shaped,flowers remain closed unless forced open by a pollinator. The long beak reaches into the flower, and the bird’s head is dusted with pollen.

Bees and butterflies visit fragrant, brightly colored flowers, which grow in clusters or have large petals for the insects to land on.

This day-flying moth uses its strawlike mouthpart—which is about as long as its body—to drink nectar from flowers of many shapes and sizes.

flowersBeetle-pollinated make a lot of pollen that stick to these clumsy insects.

Ladybug

Many moths prefer white or very pale flowers that open at night, following their sweet floral scents to find them in the dark. Beetles, such

hVioletsabrewingummingbird

The excellentpossum’sclimbingskills help it run up and down flowering trees.

Bumblebee

68 plantsFlowering Pollinators

The tiny wings of the hummingbird can flap many times in a second, allowing the bird to hover in one place as it feeds.

Although insects are the most common pollinators, larger animals such as birds and bats also play a vital role in pollination. In return, plants provide sweet nectar. Different flower shapes, colors, and smells attract specific pollinators.

As the bumblebee opens up the flower and scrambles inside to get to the nectar, its fuzzy hairs collect pollen.

The waxy bract of the banana flower bud curves back to give birds easy access to the flower inside.

This eucalyptus tree flowers in winter, relying on mammals for pollination at a time when insects are scarce.

Flexiblelight stigmas collect pollen from the lorikeet’s head. These tubular saguaro cactus flowers cover the bat’s nose in pollen as it reaches inside to drink nectar.

NECTAR GUIDES but these tend not to be scented, since birds do not have a sense of smell. The petals of birdpollinated flowers are usually bent back to allow the animals easy access. Bats pollinate some night-flowering plants and are attracted to large, pale flowers with a musty smell.

69 as ladybugs, also pollinate pale-colored flowers but choose fruity-smelling blooms. These flowers mimic the scent of ripe fruit to trick beetles into visiting them for food. Of the larger pollinators, birds are attracted to bright, day-flowering blossoms. Hummingbirds favor reddish flowers,

The flower heads of buddleia are so popular with butterflies that it is known as the butterfly bush.

Butterflies

Rainbowlorikeet

lLesserong-nosedbat

The bat’s flexible tongue helps it reach deep inside a flower.

thanMore species500 of plants are pollinated by bats.

Unlike humans, bees can see ultraviolet (UV) light. Many flowers, such as this marsh marigold, may appear plain to us, but under UV light, we can see how the petals have dark patterns that guide insects to their nectar and pollen. Under UV lightUnder normal

Strong, grasping claws help the parrot hang onto the branch while drinking nectar.

DarthVaderplant

These fun flowers look like animals and other objects, from birds to love hearts. While most of these similarities are only a coincidence, in some cases, the resemblance has evolved to attract potential pollinators.

Asian bleeding heart pipeIndian Parrotflower Snapdragon Bat-faced cuphea Skull-shaped seed pods appear after flowering.

The purple flowers look like little people, complete with arms and legs. The flowershelmet-shaped smell like rotting flesh to attract flies. These ghostly white plantsparasitic grow into the roots of trees to steal food. The showy flowers look like flying parrots with little green “beaks.”

Many of the unique and colorful flowers shown here belong to the orchid family, which consists of thousands of different plants. This includes the naked man orchid, the dancing lady orchid, and the white egret flower. The bee orchid flower, which looks like a female bee, attracts

familiarLooks

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Two red petals fan out like a pair of ears from the purple, bat-faced center. The bright pink outer petalsloveresemblehearts.

Nakedorchidman

A bee orchid’s fragrance can trick a male bee into thinking it is meeting a female.

familiarLooks 71 male bees, attaching packages of pollen to them in the process. The large duck orchid looks more like a female sawfly than a duck to male sawflies, luring these pollinators.

The pink sepals look like wings, and the flower even has a fuzzy, “hairy” body like a bee.

The duck’s “head” curls down over visiting insects to deposit pollen on them. The labellum, or lip, traps pollinating insects. The red leaflike bracts attract tohummingbirdspollinatetheflowersinside.

The delicate white petals resemble the outstretched wings of a heronlike white bird called an egret.

The large,petalruffled of flowerchocolate-scentedthislookslikeadancer’sgown. These masses of pollen stick to the bee’s head, to be transferred to the next flower.

Dancing lady orchid Hot lips hcroiddgLareuck Whitefloweregret

Bee orchid

While many of these eye-catching plants are popular with gardeners, too great a market demand can place a strain on rarer species. For this reason, the government of Thailand has banned the export of the rare parrot flower plant and its seeds to protect its dwindling numbers in the wild.

A bird’s-eye view of Inokashira Park in Tokyo, Japan, reveals the waters of the pond running through it are pink with the petals of the spectacular cherry trees that line its banks. Families and friends take picnics to the park and sit beneath the trees to eat, drink, listen to music, and enjoy the beauty of the blossoms. Later, lanterns hung in the branches are lit, and festivities carry on into the night.

RIVER OF BLOSSOM

At the start of every year, the Japanese weather office monitors the temperature and conditions to try to predict when the cherry trees, called sakura, will bloom. The trees blossom first in the warmer south of Japan, and the “blossom front” spreads up the country, moving north as spring advances. The blossom forecasts are important because thousands of people celebrate flower-viewing parties, a Japanese tradition, known as hanami, that dates back to the 8th century. The trees will carry their blossoms for only a week or two, and people need to plan their festivities. In Japanese culture, the cherry tree’s short-lived bloom is often associated with the fragility of human life.

Cupped golden yellow petals are scented.mildly

Roses were the first plants to be grown simply for their beauty and have graced gardens for around 5,000 years. The rose flower has been used as a symbol across the world, representing ideas such as love and purity, as well as adopted as the emblem of kings and countries.

Munsteadwood Dog rose hipsSunblestrose

Chineserose

SPACE ROSE

Over the centuries, gardeners have taken species of wild roses, particularly the Chinese rose, and cultivated them to get flowers with three or more layers of petals, known as “double” blooms, such as the Rose garden

Almost all wild roses have five overlapping petals and are known as “single” blooms.

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Thisroseclimbing is native to China.

This full varietyblooming was bred from five-petaledwildroses.

Seeds inside the rose hip are eaten by birds attracted by the red fruit and spread in droppings.their A line of rose-covered arches in a beautiful garden in Baden-Baden, Germany.

Long, straight stems hold these medium- to large-sized roses upright.

Fruits called hips develop once the flower has been fertilized and the petals fall off.

plantsFlowering A ofgardenroses Banks’rose

The crimson rose becomes more fragrant in the warmth of the sun.

In 1998, researchers sent the miniature rose they called “Overnight Scentsation” into space, aboard NASA’s Space Shuttle Discovery. The purpose was to study the effect of low gravity on the oils released from the rose’s petals. After 10 days, they discovered that the rose had produced an entirely new scent, unlike any rose scent found on Earth.

RosaMundi

This pale pink rose is prized for its smell. Thisrosemultilayeredvariety cost $4 million to develop.

.

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Banks’ rose and iceberg rose. Some modern varieties, including the Juliet rose and crimson glory, have more than 25 petals and are called “full” blooms. Rose breeders have been able to create white, yellow, orange, pink, and red roses, but never a truly blue one. Rose petals contain oils with a

Iceberg was voted the “world’s favorite rose” in 1983. Pale pink flowers bloom from dark pink buds. This striped pink flower was cultivated more than 400 years ago.

Rose petals must be steamed with water, the same day they are picked, to extract the perfumed oil.

wonderful fragrance used in perfumes and many other beauty products, while rose water is used to flavor sweets such as Turkish delight. Some roses, such as the dog rose, bear glossy, seed-bearing fruits called rose hips in fall. Rich in vitamin C, these can be used in teas, preserves, and medicines. Leaflike sepals protect growingthebud.

This deep red rose may have as many as 26–40 petals and is very fragrant.

Making rose oil, BulgariaIceberg rose Crimson glory Juliet rose gDorose Musk rose Some pricklesrose can be made into fishinghooks

Orange pom-poms are made of individual flowers and colorful hairs. Three separate florets look like a single flower. flowerWhorl The spiky thistleglobe is also called the hedgehogblue . The striped ray florets surround a center of tiny disk florets.

With nearly 25,000 species, daisies make up one of the largest plant families. But their pretty flower heads are not quite what they seem. What looks like one flower is in fact a cluster of lots—sometimes thousands—of tiny flowers in the center, with a ring of what looks like petals but is in fact more flowers around the edge.

Crazy daisiesfor

redYellow-tippedflorets , which look like flames, give this plant the name “firewheel.” flower Coneflower

Stifftia Blanket

Pink petals surround a spiny conelike center that is full of nectar. Tubular flowers are produced by this critically endangered Hawaiian plant. Treasure flower Maui island-aster thistleGlobe

The round flower head is made up of small flowers, ranging from purple to metallic-blue.

76 plantsFlowering

The purple florets fade to cream toward the center of the flower head. cornflowerPersian

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Daisies such as the treasure flower, the common daisy, and chicory have large outer petal-like ray florets, surrounding the disk florets in the center. Each disk floret is in fact five fused petals that form a tubelike flower, which you can see clearly in the whorl flower. The sunflower has a large head so you can make out the individual disk florets as they bloom, from the outside in.

Each petal-like ray floret is a lopsided flower.

Each floret produces one seed. The flower-packed heads of daisies make them much more attractive to insects and makes pollination a lot easier. Most have bright colors to attract insect pollinators, such as bees, but the tropical Mutisia flower is pollinated by birds. The other tropical daisies, stifftia and the Maui island-aster, are unusual because they grow on trees.

daisiesforCrazy

The largest sunflower head ever grown was in 1983, at 321⁄4 in (82 cm) across. Sunflower

Yellow disk florets at the center produce pollen and make seeds. Mutisia The orange ray florets attract bird pollinators.

Edible flowersblue , which are bitter in taste, can be eaten in salads.

Common daisy Chicory

Mothorchid

Bulbophyllum

One petalcolorful is the focus of these unusual flowers. These unusual speckled flowers bloom for two to three months in a year. Thesepetalsdecorative can be red, white, yellow, or pink.

Zygopetalum

Orchids are found almost everywhere in the world but are most common in the tropics where, like the vanda orchid, they live high in the rain forest trees. In cooler climates orchids usually grow on the ground. All orchids have three outer sepals and three inner petals, including a distinctive lip petal that acts as a landing

Oncidium

Orchids are beautiful flowers with clever tactics for attracting pollinators. Some mimic male insects, so rival males will attack them and get covered in pollen. Others attract male insects by looking like females. Some flowers entice bees and butterflies with a sweet smell, while others stink of rotting meat to draw flies.

Redcrossorchid

Large, flowerslong-lived make this orchid a houseplant.popular

78 plantsFlowering orchidsIngenious

Cross-shaped lip petals give this orchid its name. Large petal acts as a landing platform for insects.

The long petals of this orchid often smell rotten to attract pollinator flies.

EpicattleyaReneMarques

Slipper orchid

79 platform for pollinators. Oncidium and zygopetalum flowers have particularly large lip petals, and in the nun orchid and cattleya flowers, these take the shape of colorful tubes. Orchids bundle their pollen into sticky packages, which attach to pollinators when they visit the flower. Some orchids can be pollinated only by a single species of insect—for the red disa orchid, for example, it is the mountain pride butterfly. This leaves the orchid very vulnerable. If the insect went extinct, the orchid would follow.

Insects enter thispetalpouchlike and are covered in pollen as they struggle to get out.

These blossomflowers for only three days so have a strong scent to attract pollinator bees quickly.

Aerial roots collect water from moisture in the air. Tubular petals lure insects inside. Stanhopea

These showy flowers are pollinated only by one species of butterfly.

White petals attract pollinators in spite of this flower’s lack of nectar.

There are speciesknown28,000 of orchids in the world Cattleya purpurataRed disaNun orc h id Vanda

Nerine bulb

Some of our favorite flowers grow from underground food stores, called bulbs. Packed with food and water, bulbs lie dormant beneath the soil when the weather is either too hot or too cold, hidden from hungry animals. But as soon as conditions are right, they quickly sprout new shoots and leaves.

Daffodil

andBlossomsbulbs

Delicate, lilylike flowers are produced on leafless stalks. Tiny bulbs called bulbils, which are 1 ⁄4 –7 ⁄16 in (7–11 mm ) in size, can grow into new plants. Large flowers bloom before leaves grow from the bulb Cross section of a bulb Large bulbs give rise to yellow, shapedtrumpet-blooms.

kiPnwoodsorrel

This bulb starts flowering about 6–8 weeks after planting. Each wild leek stalk can produce more than 500 flowers. An outer layer protects the bulb. New leaves grow from the stem. Roots hold the bulb in the ground.

A bulb is made up of a short stem that produces layers of fleshy leaves known as scales, which store food and water.

Amaryllisbulb iNerne

UNDERGROUND STORE This bulb grows only in cool weather during the fall.

illAmarys

Scales are a type of leaf that stores rootsconnectsShortfood.stemtheandshoots.Leavesusesunlighttomakefood.

keeL

Many South African plants, such as amaryllises and nerines, spend the hot summer as bulbs under the ground, flowering in the fall when it is cooler.

Poisonous bulbs can irritate skin on contact. Balls of flowers can grow 7 in (20 cm) across. Clusters of purple flowers grow on stalks up to 3 ft (1 m) tall.

bulbsandBlossoms 81

Others, such as daffodils, tulips, and hyacinths, flower in the spring after the cold winter in other countries has ended. These are some of the most popular blooms, farmed for selling as cut flowers for the home. Although some bulb plants, such as leeks and onions, are edible, others produce toxic chemicals to discourage animals from digging up the bulbs and eating them. Daffodil, hyacinth, and tulip bulbs are poisonous to many animals.

Tulip Leek bulb Giantonion

yHacinth

Long roots can pull the bulbs deeper into the soil.Leek bulbs form long, straight white barrels. Roots continue to grow and absorb nutrients and moisture during the cool fall season. Bulbs multiply as they mature and grow into new plants. Waxy leaves are arranged alternately on the stem irisDwarf

82 plantsFlowering Pineapple lily imperial Thespikeflower resemblemay an canpineappleattractivebutsmellawful. White blossoms smell like rotting fish to attract flies as pollinators. When we think of flowers, we usually think of the colorful petals and sweet scents that attract pollinators such as bees or butterflies. But some plants smell truly terrible. Their stinking flowers, leaves, and roots attract a different set of pollinators, including flies and beetles.thatWhat’ssmell? Jackal food Bradfordpear Carrionplant Thisflowerstrange-looking traps insects until they are all covered in pollen. No Durian This bloomsbrightlyplant'scolored , leaves, and stem smell like foxes. The hairystar-shaped, flower looks like a dead animal. Smelly durian is banned on Singapore.transportationpublicin Crown Carrionflowers can grow up to 16 in (41 cm) across. The flowers, which bloom in spring and summer, smell like rotting meat to draw in insects. Darumragon

Ginkgo

smell?thatWhat’s

FLOWER TOWER

Also known as the corpse flower, titan arum has a red flower sheath that looks and smells like rotting meat.

The roots of valerian smell like sweaty socks.

Some flowers, such as those of the Bradford pear and carrion plant, smell like rotting meat to attract flies. Jackal food plants spend most of their lives underground, sending up a poo-scented flower to be pollinated by dung beetles. The crown imperial plant, however, uses smell to scare off would-be attackers, such as squirrels and deer, by stinking like a fox or a skunk. Not only do plants such as the dead horse arum and titan arum smell awful, but they also heat up their flowers to help this smell spread farther. The vomitlike smells of the durian fruit and female ginkgo nut are so strong that both are banned from many public places in some countries.

Titan arum

Titan arum

The titan arum makes the tallest flower spike in the world, but it flowers only once every two to seven years in the Sumatran rain forest in Indonesia. Fleshy, smelly nuts of the female tree contain edible seeds that do not smell.

The leavesdelicate of this plant smell like roast beef when bruised or damaged. This giant flower spike can heat up to 90 °F (32 °C).

Stinkingiris daeDhorsearum nairelaV

tallm)(3ft10

The petal-like bract is hairy,flesh-colored,andsmellslikerottingmeat.

Water hyacinth

Floweringhrus

All plants need oxygen to survive. Some aquatic plants take in oxygen from the water, while others, such as the water lily, have tiny tubes in their stalks to carry air from above the water’s surface to their roots. Water lily Stems, not roots, anchor this plant under water.

LIVING UNDER WATER

plantsFlowering

Flower spike and leaves reach up to 5 ft (1.5 m) tall.

Ponds, rivers, and oceans are full of plants. These often grow quickly because they have access to a lot of water and sunlight. Some aquatic plants float on the surface, their flat leaves soaking up the sun’s rays, while others are fully submerged. Many send up leaves and flowers from an anchored underwater root.

Cross section of leaf stalk

Fanwort Hornwort Fan-shaped leaves give this plant its name. Air-filled leaf stalks help the plant float. Air spaces allow oxygen to pass from the leaves down to the roots. Waxy lily pads rest on the water’s surface. inLivingwater

Water lily

Umbr e lla grass

Common eelgrass

Parrot’sfeather

Americaneelgrass

waterinLiving

Pairs of flowers form a V shape.

The plantsearliest to grow on Earth evolved in water. Tiny hairs trap air to help the plant float.

Water l ettuce

Tufts of leaves protect the developing flowers. Dense leaves can be up to 1 in (3 cm) long.

Just like plants on land, water-based plants need sunlight to make food and have found their own unique ways to survive. Plants such as the flowering rush and water lily are rooted at the bottom of ponds and rivers but push out long leaves to capture sunlight and tall flower stalks to be pollinated by insects. The feathery leaves of the fanwort and hornwort spread out to let the water drift freely through without tearing them. Water hyacinths and water lettuces trap air in their leaves to help them float. While some water plants provide a habitat and food for fish and other aquatic animals, others such as waterweed and parrot’s feather grow so quickly that they often take over lakes and streams, harming other plants and the animals that live there.

hawthornWater

Bright green feathery leaves and stem can stand up to 11 3 ⁄4 in (30 cm) out of the water.

Tall stems carry leaves that resemble umbrella spokes. Leaves grow up to 61 ⁄2 ft (2 m) long. Clumps of eelgrass form undermeadowstheocean.

waterweedBrazilian

Tiny, brown female flowers grow in the form of a dense spike.

m)(3.3ft11 Giant

plantsFlowering

GIANT LEAVES Native to riverbanks in Brazil, the giant rhubarb has massive leaves—the largest undivided leaves of any flowering plant. Its flowers, however, are tiny and grow on spiky heads near the ground. rhubarb Marsh marigold

theAlongriver

Brilliant yellow flowers attract bees in early spring. Swamp r o se mallow

Each large flower grows to about 6 in (15 cm) across.

Cattail

These huge leaves have a spiny underside that stops animals from eating them.

The soil along a riverbank is rich in nutrients deposited by flooding, so plants here can grow large and often very fast. They can thrive all summer long, as they never suffer drought. However, when a river floods, the fast-flowing water may carry away anything not firmly rooted in the soil.

liatguoRhhorse

Tall spikes of delicate mauve flowers blossom in late summer. Clusters of up to six flowers are borne on tall, sturdy stems. One of the biggest riverside plants, the giant rhubarb, grows 8 ft (2.5 m) tall and 13 ft (4 m) wide. Not much smaller, the white skunk cabbage grows huge cabbagelike leaves. Both plants die away in winter, shedding leaves that might otherwise become caught up in floodwater and uproot them. Plants such as the marsh marigold, purple loosestrife, water spearmint, and candelabra primrose lie dormant in winter but grow fast in spring or summer. Cattail, soft rush, and snowberry have a different survival strategy. They are present all year long, and their tough leaves or stems can withstand swift floodwaters, so each year they grow even larger. In North America, these white berries are food for bighorn sheep and grizzly bears.

Softrush Csnowberryommon Stalks of horsetail were used by early American pioneers to scour pots and pans.

epPurleloosestrif These leaves have a minty smell. Candelabra WprimrosehiteskunkcabbageWaterspearmint A cluster of bright red flowers grows on the side of the stem. Large, leaflikewhitebracts attract flies to the smelly flower heads. The conelikebrown,structures at the end of stemsnonfloweringthisplant’scontainspores.

A shoal of fish swirl past the tangled roots of a mangrove tree that stands partially submerged in the warm Caribbean Sea off the Central American country of Belize. Most mangroves grow along tropical and subtropical coastlines, where their roots are flooded with seawater twice a day. Such a wet, salty environment would be fatal to most plants, but mangrove forests thrive in it.

FLOODED FOREST

Mangroves include everything from small shrubs to huge trees, all adapted for living in salt water. The plants use a range of survival tactics, from filtering out salt in seawater as they drink it in through their roots to releasing salt through leaf pores. Many mangrove trees stop their roots from rotting by absorbing oxygen through spongy standing roots at low tide. Then, at high tide, the pores in their roots close, preventing the trees from getting waterlogged. Mangroves are an important tropical and subtropical habitat, acting as natural storm barriers and preventing coastal erosion. The network of roots is also a source of food for fish and other small ocean creatures, and helps shelter them from larger predators.

Mass of thin roots.

Summer flower ❯ The monk’s hood cactus produces pale yellow flowers throughout the summer. They are pollinated by insects and produce spiky fruits.

What is a cactus?

Inside a monk’s hood cactus

Water is stored in the barrel-shaped stem. Some cacti, such as this one, expand when filled with water and contract when dry.

Roots ❯ The roots of this cactus spread across a large area and grow close to the surface. They quickly draw in as much water as possible from rain or dew.

Cacti come in all shapes and sizes, but nearly all of them have large swollen stems that allow them to store water. This is because many cacti grow in areas with little or no rainfall for long periods of time. Desert cacti have clever adaptations to help them survive extreme heat and drought, however a few very different cacti live in rain forests.

90 plantsFlowering

Flakes ❯ In a desert, the sun is very bright. White flakes grow on the stem of the cactus, helping to reflect light. Spine ❯ These help shade the stem and stop animals from eating the cactus. A spine is, in fact, a type of modified leaf with a small surface area to prevent water from evaporating. Monk’scactushood

The ribs channel dew to the roots.

Cacti shapes Columnar Cacti, such as the saguaro, can grow 40 ft (12 m) tall, and have distinctive armlike side branches. Bats pollinate their flowers, which grow at the top of the plant.

Where do they grow?

Clustering The prickly pear cactus has flattened stems that grow in clusters. The red, prickly fruit must be peeled to remove the small spines. Globular Many cacti, like the barrel cactus, have rounded stems. This maximizes water storage, while its vertical ridges direct every drop of water to the roots. Climbing Some cacti live in forests, where they clamber up other plants for sunlight. The queen of the night cactus has huge flowers that bloom for just one night. Deserts Desert cacti have to survive extreme heat and light. Often large and spiny, they grow all over North and South America. Forests Some cacti grow in shaded forests. Their stems do not need to store water, as the roots draw moisture from the air. Grasslands Smaller cacti often grow in grasslands, where the grasses shade them in summer. Most are found in South America.

Birds such as this owl use the saguaro cactus for nesting. Barrel cactus

Many cacti live in the desert, where their water-filled stems help them survive long periods of drought. Most plants use their leaves to make food from sunlight, but cacti do this using their green, fleshy stems. To protect themselves from hungry animals, cacti have specially adapted leaves called spines. Vertical stems can grow up to 26 ft (8 m) tall. Bilberry cactus stemsPaddle-shaped are flat, unlike stems in most cacti. Branches can take up to 40 years to form, growing at less than 1 in (2.5 cm) a year.

stemsOverlapping create a fan shape. Long, yellow spines erupt in starry clusters from ridges on the body.

Cool cacti

TALLEST CACTUS With a recorded height of 63 ft (19.2 m) and a trunk about 3 ft (1 m) thick, the Mexican false saguaro is the tallest-known living cactus in the world. m)(19.2ft63

92

Pricklypear

gOranpipecactus

Living in hot and dry environments means that cacti have to make the most of the rare, but often heavy, rainfall. Ribs on the barrel cactus allow it to stretch its stem to quickly take in as much water as possible. In harsh desert conditions, plants grow very slowly and live a long time. Some, such as the saguaro and false saguaro cacti, can live for up to 300 years. These tall

Saguaro

93 cacti, along with the organ pipe cactus, are pollinated by lesser long-nosed bats at night, while most other species are visited by insects or birds during the day. Prickly pear flowers curl their anthers around visiting bees to coat them in pollen. Not all cacti live in the desert—the Christmas cactus, for example, grows on trees in the tropical rain forests of Brazil. Flowers open at night for moth and beetle pollinators. Flowers bloom around Christmastime in the Northern Hemisphere. White,spineshairlike evaporation.reduce FalsesaguaroChristmascactus Fragrant flowers grow on top of this rounded cactus. cactusNeonbroom Tephrocactus Oldcactusman Bishop’scactuscap Mexican fire barrel Red spines give this plant its name. Stout stems can be up to 31 ⁄3 ft (1 m) thick. sharpFiercely , long spines protect this cactus.

plantsFlowering

Shiny, triangular leaves are arranged in a rosette.

The dense cushions of leaves of this poisonous plant trap water inside.

Resurrection plant After rain, the leaves unfurl in a matter of hours. When dry, resurrection plants close down and curl up to preserve moisture.Echeveria

The high, thorny branches can be eaten only by giraffes, with their muscular tongues.

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Dried plant Camel thorn

Spiny leaves with sharp tips can grow up to 5 ft (1.5 m) in length.

The echeveria plant and the Queen Victoria agave retain water by trapping it inside their fleshy leaves. Their leaves also have a waxy surface that reflects the sun’s rays and keeps the plant cool. The resurrection plant can lose more than 95 percent of its weight during dry periods, shriveling into a dry ball. It can survive

A desert is a very dry area, with less than 10 in (25 cm) of rainfall a year. All plants need water to survive, but desert plants have adapted to their habitat by using ingenious methods of storing water, reducing the amount they lose, or just by being able to survive drying out.

LlaretaCenturyplant

Desert survivors

These patternswhitemark where growing leaves pushed against each other.

survivorsDesert

like this for several years but quickly comes back to life when rain soaks its leaves. Like cacti, the baseball plant, living stone, and African moringa store water in their stems. Plants are fairly uncommon in deserts and semideserts, so many predators eye them hungrily. The camel thorn and century plant defend themselves using sharp thorns or spines, while others, including the llareta, protect themselves with poison.

Bitter fruits contain fatty seeds used to make oils and biofuels. The fleshy stem makes food for the plant by photosynthesis.

Africanmoringa

Pebblelike leaves camouflage this plant in rocky deserts.

LivingBaseballplantstone

Wilddesertgourd

The young leaves of this tree are eaten and sometimes used as medicine in Ethiopia.

Queen Victoria agave

Now protected by law, baseball plants nearly went extinct due to overcollecting.

DESERT BLOOM

The vast Atacama Desert in Chile is one of the driest places in the world, with very little rainfall. The bare, baked ground appears bleak and lifeless. When it rains, however, millions of flowering plants, such as these purple pussy-paws, spring up and transform the land into a carpet of color. These short-lived plants, or “ephemerals,” grow from seeds that have long lain dormant in the earth.

Desert ephemerals are plants that live fast and die young. Once the right conditions have triggered their explosion of growth, they have a few weeks, or often just days, to complete their life cycle. Ephemerals are usually small and short. Growing tall takes time and energy, and desert plants have none to spare. They must make the most of their short season by producing flowers and setting seed very quickly. With the return of drought, the ephemerals disappear as fast as they came. They leave behind their scattered seeds, safely hidden in cracks in the parched ground, where they sit out the tough times until the next rain. It may be a very long wait.

Meat-eating plants often grow in bogs, trapping insects and other small animals to get the nitrogen and minerals they need that are missing from the wet soil.

The slipperybright,lip attracts insects. Tropical pitc her plant Long teeth keep insects inside as the trap closes. pitchersspeciestropicalSomehavethathangfromtendrils.

Waterwheel pl a nt Cobra plant

INSIDE A PITCHER PLANT

3. Insect drowns in a pool of digestive juices. The leaves have pools of water between them where drowned insects are digested. Underwater traps snap shut in 1 ⁄50 of a second when triggered by prey. See-through windows on the hood confuse trapped prey who tire themselves out trying to escape. Trap closes in less than a second when trigger hairs are touched.

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Powderystrapairplant Venusflytrap

Many animals eat plants, but have you ever heard of a plant eating an animal?

1. attractsslipperycoloredBrightlylip,withsweetnectar,prey.

plantsFlowering plantsMeat-eating

There are different types of meat-eating, or carnivorous, plants. Waterwheel plants and Venus flytraps have snap traps, which quickly close shut around their victims. Pitcher plants have a lip of nectar to attract their prey. The insects then fall into the pitcher (jug) of digestive

2. Waxy insides ensure the insect cannot climb out. A lid prevents rain from flooding the pitcher.

99 juices, which break down their bodies.

The flypaper traps of the butterwort and sundew have sticky hairs that make sweet treats to attract insects, which they digest slowly. The bladderwort is an amazing plant with leaves that have evolved over a long time to form pouchlike traps to help them get the nutrients they need to survive. Its underwater traps are triggered by sensitive hairs and act like vacuum cleaners to suck in small prey as they swim by.

Bladderwort

Sensitive hairs, when touched by prey, open the trapdoor, which then swells up and sucks the victim into a pouch.

The partsundigestedofinsects sink to the bottom of the colorful trap.

Sensitive hairs covered in sticky juices wrap around the prey.

pitcherTrumpetplant

Tubelike traps downward-pointingcontainhairs to prevent their victims’ escape.

Sundew Sunplantpitcher Butterwort Sticky hairs, present on only the summer leaves, trap insects.

Tube-shaped leaves produce nectar to attract insects, which are digested by bacteria in the trap.

Throughout history, humans have known about the poisonous properties of certain plants and used them for deadly ends. Belladonna was used to make poison-tipped arrows, while hemlock is said to have been used to kill the great philosopher Socrates in ancient Greece. Wolfsbane was

Sweet but poisonous, these black berries can be deadly.

All parts of this plant are toxic, though the seeds contain the most poison. These toxic leaves poison the milk of cows that feed on them.

LilyofthevalleyBelladonna

Poisonous plants

Many plants produce poisons to prevent them from being eaten. While some will cause only a stomachache, others can kill. You should never eat any part of a plant, unless an expert can confirm it is safe.

Rosary pea Hemlock

snakerootWhite Whitebaneberry

This plantpretty is poisonous.highly

A single seed contains enough poison to kill an adult human.

Wolfsbane

Although all the plants shown here are toxic to humans, some are harmless to animals. For example, birds can eat the berries of the white baneberry plant and yew without any ill effects. The birds then spread the seeds in their poo. Iguanas are known to feast on the fruit and leaves of the toxic manchineel

plantsPoisonous

The purple, helmet-shaped flowers of this plant give it its other name, “Devil’s Helmet.” Poisonous plants contain some of the most substancesdeadly in the world.

Each spiny capsule has three beans inside. Theseleavesdangerous can cause blisters if touched.

Oleander

Castoroil

plant

The toxic leaves of this plant can kill within hours if eaten. Harmless red berries hide poisonous seeds. The poisonous leaves are very bitter. The deadly sap of these leaves may cause a rash if touched.

Yew pong Manchineel

These bitter, white berries look like the eyes of a doll. The fruit contains a poisonous seed— eating it can kill a human in two days.

Pong

101 rubbed on arrows for hunting wolves, and during Roman times, it was commonly used for murdering enemies. Ricin, extracted from the castor oil plant, remains one of the most deadly poisons known today.

Mistletoe Ivy broomrape Tiny flowers, 2 mm across, bloom along the host stem.

Dodder mistletoeCactus stemsuckerThurber’s

The pale stems of this plant are parasites of ivy plants. Helosis Thin stems wrap around a host plant and weaken its immune system.

plantsParasitic

Red flowers are the only part of this leafless parasite that is visible outside the cactus. The plants take root on branches, from seeds dropped by birds that eat mistletoe berries.

There are two main types of parasitic plants. Hemiparasites (half parasites) can use sunlight to make some of their own food but absorb water, nutrients, and sometimes sugars from the host plants they live on. Some hemiparasites, such as mistletoe and the Australian Christmas tree, will

flowerMushroom-shapedstalksemerge from thestems,undergroundwhichfeedonrootsofhostplants.

Parasitic plants pierce the stems or roots of other plants to steal their hard-earned supplies.

102

Most plants absorb water and nutrients from the soil to make their own food using energy from sunlight, but others have developed sneakier ways to survive.

die if they cannot find a host to steal from. Others, including eyebright and butter and eggs, can survive without a host, although they tend to not grow as well. On the other hand, the second type, holoparasites (whole parasites), cannot make any food of their own and must find a host plant to survive.

INVADING A HOST Host plant

The parasite steals nutrients from the roots of other plants to grow as tall as 14 in (35 cm).

world’slilyThe corpsehasthe flowerlargest , more than 3 1 ⁄4 ft (1 m) across.

plantsParasitic

103

eertsamtsirhCnailartsuA

This wildflowertiny relies nearbythestolennutrientsonfromrootsofgrasses.

Parasite The haustoria grow toward the chemical signals given off by the host’s roots. All parasitic plants have modified roots called haustoria, which enter the roots or stems of host plants to steal food, water, and nutrients.

The flowers of this plant look and smell like rotting meat. This tree’s greedy roots can steal nutrients from plants 360 ft (110 m) away.

Corpselily Butter a nd eggs Eyebright

Some holoparasites, such as dodder, grow above ground. Most, such as the cactus mistletoe, Helosis, Thurber’s stemsucker, and the impressive corpse lily, live within their host plant, emerging only to flower. Parasitic plants do not generally kill their hosts but can weaken them.

Cobwebhouse-leek roadleafstonecrop spade-shapedare

flowersStar-shaped pollinatingattractbees. The tall flower spikes develop quickly in spring.

Mountain life

Life up a mountain is harsh. At high altitude, plants are exposed to extreme temperatures, freezing weather in winter, and intense sunlight in summer. The thin soil is dry. Yet some hardy plants manage to survive here. Many have short stems to keep out of the wind and small leaves to reduce heat and water loss. They usually hug the ground in clumps. Some plants even have silver or white leaves to reflect sunlight.

B

spottedAlpine orchid Alpine pink Many heads of bright yellow flowers burst out of each rosette. This sugarbush is an endangered plant in its native South Africa. The alpine pink’s tiny leaves are almost hidden by large flowers in spring.

Forget-me-not sugarbushSerpentine

leavesblue-greenFleshy

These tightly curled heads of pink buds open into blue flowers.

Long-petaledlewisiaspeedwellProstrate

M o untain buttercup

This Hawaiianendangeredplant grows on the edge of a volcano at more than 6,900 ft (2,100 m). Its swordlike leaves are covered in silver hair.

Mountain plants have adapted to the dry climate of their habitat in different ways. The alpine spotted orchid and spotted fritillary survive the cold winter as bulbs, flowering in spring. The Himalayan may apple cannot tolerate bright, dry conditions, so it grows quickly in spring and then dies back underground for the rest of the year. Others, such as the broadleaf stonecrop, alpine pink, cobweb house-leek, and long-petaled lewisia produce short, sturdy leaves, and survive all year by staying close to the ground for protection from the wind.

growplantsSomecan up to 20,177 ft (6,150 m) above sea level.

The spikes of flowersnoddingmay grow to a height of 24 in (60 cm). This plantbeautiful butextremesurvivescold,notdrought.

This rare plant is found only near Lake Tahoe California.in Fine hairswhite that look like cobwebs reduce heat and water loss.

This wild plant stays very short to avoid strong winds. Even the flower heads of the prostrate speedwell grow close to the ground.

105 lifeMountain

Himalayanmayapple

Spottedfritillary Haleakala silversword

106 Fine tendrils twirl slowly around until they find something to grab onto.

Thorny hooks Wisteria Star jasmine

Vines can be creepers or climbers. Creepers grow and spread along the ground, while climbers clamber up towards the sunlight. As these vines grow, they may curl around a tree, or up a wall or fence, adding colour to the garden.

Creepers and climbers

BougainvilleaEverlastingpea

Vines recognize their own chemical signal so avoidthemselves.strangling Showers of flowers hang from twining stems.

The plant’s thorny stems can grow up to 39 ft (12 m) tall. This sweetly scented climber is covered in white flowers.

Gardeners often grow fragranttheseflowers up a teepee of poles.

Some creepers, such as jasmine, twirl their flexible stems around other plants to reach for the sky. Clematis plants do the same but use long leaf stalks to wrap around their neighbors in order to climb upward. Bougainvillea hooks its thorns into surfaces to drag itself higher, while everlasting pea,

climbersandCreepers 107

Plants cannot see so use their tendrils to find something to cling to. Some detect the shade of a nearby object, while others detect chemical signals given off by other plants.

vineFlame

Clematis Gripping roots Englishivy

1. Tendriloutward.extends 2. It revolves until an object is detected. 3. Tendril wraps around the support.

Forked,tendrilsgrasping Sticky suckers

leavespalm-shapedThe turn bright red in fall. Root clusters on the stem allow this vine to climb to a height of 98 ft (30 m). tendrilsSticky-tipped grip the wall. Two leaflets often share a forked tendril for climbing. Large, colorful flowers make this climber popular with gardeners.

Virginia creeper, and flame vine produce fine tendrils that seek out something to cling to. The stems of English ivy sprout clusters of fingerlike aerial roots that burrow into the crevices of the bark, wall, or fence the plant is climbing up. These powerful roots grip so hard, they are difficult to remove and can damage houses and smother trees.

Virginia cree p er TWINING STEMS

Through the seasons A deciduous tree, such as this Norway maple, has a cycle of growth that follows the seasons.

Spring As the weather gets warmer in spring, leaves begin to sprout from buds on the branches. The green leaves use sunlight to make food for the tree to grow and produce flowers. Summer Long days of sunlight allow the tree to make lots of food, and the tree is thick with leaves and yellow flowers, which are cross-pollinated primarily by bees. When fertilized, the flowers will become fruits and seeds will form.

Of all the plants, trees are the biggest and live the longest. Instead of green stems, they have woody trunks, which usually divide into many branches. The woody tissue is very strong, allowing some trees to grow to incredible heights of 330 ft (100 m) or more. A network of roots anchors the tree to the ground and draws up water and nutrients from the soil.

Leaf is tightly folded inside the bud but soon bursts out. Bud scales are tough and weatherproof.

What is a tree?

108 plantsFlowering

Norwaymaple

Bursting buds ❯ Leaves and new stems sprout from buds that protect the soft, delicate tissue from winter frosts. The new growth makes the bud burst open.

Types of forests Where there is enough rainfall for trees to grow in large numbers, they can form dense forests.

Every year, a tree’s trunk grows broader as a layer of woody tissue is added beneath the bark. The tissue grows fastest in spring, making softer wood, and more slowly late in the year, making harder wood. This forms annual growth rings, which are revealed if the tree is cut down.

The type of forest depends on the nature of the trees, which is determined by the climate.

Cross section of a tree trunk Winter In the cold winter months, the branches are bare and the tree lies dormant, preserving its energy and water until the following spring.

Deciduous or evergreen?

There are two main types of trees. Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter as they stop growing. In spring, they produce thin leaves that make food efficiently, so the tree grows fast in summer. Evergreen trees have tougher leaves that make food more slowly but stay on the tree all year long.

Fall As the days get colder and shorter, the tree stops making food. The chlorophyll that makes the leaves green begins to break down, and they change from green to red and gold and fall from the tree.

Deciduous tree in fall Evergreentree Rain forest In wet climates with no winter frosts, trees grow all year round to create rain forests. These are mostly found around the tropics. Coniferous The forests that grow in cold andtrees,evergreenmadeclimatesnorthernaremostlyupoftoughconifersuchaspinesspruces.

Leaves change from green to red.

The heartwood at the center is the oldest part of the tree.

Deciduous Regions with long summers and short winters have forests of deciduous trees. They lose their leaves in fall but grow new ones in spring.

Wide, pale rings form in spring, while narrow, dark rings form later in the year.

Trunk rings The tough outer bark protects the layer of growing plantbeneathtissueit.

Elderberry Dragon’s blood tree Sugar maple Ginkgo Spreading Columnar Broad Circles of white elder flowers are used to flavor drinks. Tall, columnlike trees have egg-shapedsmall,cones.

Most evergreen trees are conifers, nonflowering plants such as the Mediterranean cypress and Nordmann fir. However, some flowering trees with tough leaves are evergreen, too. The eucalyptus, for example, has tough leaves with an oily coating to keep in water, which hang vertically,

These tall trees can grow to 147 ft (45 m) in height.

ofTypestrees

Stiff evergreen leaves grow in clusters at the ends of branches. yellowAutumnalleaves all fall within a few days of each other. Broad Broad barkTheof a dragon’s blood tree a“bleeds”blood-redsap when cut.

Trees come in all shapes and sizes, depending on the conditions they live in. Trees in leaf all year round, with old ones constantly replaced by new ones, are called evergreen. Trees that lose all their leaves for part of the year are called deciduous.

idMeterraneancypress

110 plantsFlowering

111 reducing exposure to the sun during the Australian summers. Palms, such as the coconut palm, that grow in wet, warm tropical climates are also evergreen. Deciduous trees shed their leaves for part of the year, when conditions are too hot, cold, or dry. The common fig loses its leaves to survive the dry season, while the elderberry, ginkgo, sugar maple, and English oak grow in regions with mild summers but lose their leaves to help them survive cold winters. While holly lives in the same climate as these trees, its leathery evergreen leaves are able to tolerate the frosty winter.

Common fig Eucalyptus Nordmannfir Mature trees can produce two crops of figs each year. Bright red berries provide winter food for birds. This long-lived tree can survive for more than 1,000 years. This umbrellalike tree can grow up to 33 ft (10 m) in height. Divided leaves allow harsh coastal winds to whip through without breakingthetree.

Palm Conical Round Each needlelike leaf on this tree is up to 1 1 ⁄4 in (3.5 cm) long.

Branched Round Spreading Conical

JoshuaEuropeanhollytree

branchesSlow-growing extend about 1 1 ⁄2 in (4 cm) a year. The toxic leaves of this tree are harmless to koalas and possums.

Englishoak

Coconutpalm

Bark is the woody “skin” that protects the trunks of trees and stems of shrubs, forming a barrier against disease and grazing animals, while keeping water in. Bark is essentially dead tissue—a tough layer formed as the living cells underneath it die and are replaced.

112 plantsFlowering upBarkingthetree

Plates (Persimmon) Unusual rectangular plates make it easy to identify a persimmon tree’s bark. The red-brown bark can be up to 11 in (30 cm) thick. The green inner bark turns blue, purple, and orange when exposed to the air.

Spiny (Silk floss) Fibrous (Coast redwood) Cone-shaped spines protect this greenish gray bark against animals. Smooth (American beech) This smooth gray bark can be infected by deadly fungi. Vertical stripes (Manchurian striped maple) The bright green bark with white stripes is easily damaged in strong sunlight. Tree bark comes in many different patterns and textures and is vital to the health of a tree. The fibrous bark of the coast redwood is extremely fire-resistant, while the spines on silk floss bark deter any hungry animals from eating the young branches. Since all trunks need air to

Rough lenticels break up the shiny, coppery brown bark. Diamond-shaped pores join each other to form channels in older trees.

Some bark naturally splits as the tree grows, revealing the inner layer beneath. This produces beautiful patterns on the Manchurian striped maple, the rainbow eucalyptus, and the

American sycamore. Trees can die if their bark is severely damaged. Mountain pine beetles can introduce a fungus under the bark of a pine tree to weaken it, allowing their eggs to hatch and the larvae to eat the living layer under the bark. The pine tree releases sticky resin to defend itself against these insects.

113 survive, trees such as white poplar and Tibetan cherry develop spongy cracks called lenticels in their bark to let air pass through.

Intersecting ridges (Crack willow) Diamond lenticels (White poplar)

Mottled (American sycamore)

Thick outer bark peels off to reveal soft inner bark. Powdery, white bark reflects the heat of the strong Australian sun.

Deep cracks develop in the bark as the tree ages. English oak bark contains tannins, which are chemicals used in making leather. Flaking (Pine) In some AustralianAboriginal stories, ghost gums arespiritsliving .stripsPeeling eucalyptus)(Rainbow

brokenHorizontallyridges(English oak) Blotchy bark flakes off in large chunks. Horizontal lenticels (Tibetan cherry) White (Ghost gum)

STANDING TALL North America’s Pacific Coast is densely forested, with millions of conifer trees growing in the cool, wet conditions on the west side of the Rocky Mountains. Massive trees thrive in this climate, such as this old-growth redwood in California’s Bear Creek Watershed. In the distance is Rockefeller Forest, the world’s oldest continuous old-growth redwood forest, measuring more than 15 sq miles (40 sq km).

This tree may seem huge compared to its surroundings, but the title for the world’s tallest tree goes to Hyperion that stands at 380 ft (116 m)—or about twice the height of the Statue of Liberty in New York City. The exact whereabouts of Hyperion, a coastal redwood, remains a closely guarded secret, and there are no confirmed photographs of it. However, we do know it lies somewhere in Northern California’s Cascade Range, a part of the Redwood National Park, which also houses Helios and Icarus, the second and third tallest trees. Despite its jaw-dropping height, the 600–800-year-old Hyperion was not found until 2006, as it grows in a valley that hides its height from clear view.

Blossom is the name for the flowers that grow on trees and bushes, which often produce colorful displays in spring and summer. Changes in temperature and day length signal to the plant when to bloom.

Pink flowers grow in clusters in spring, and produce purple seed pods. This upright petal guidestopollinatorsthenectar.

Mock orange

The fragrant flowers of this shrub contain oils used in perfumes.

Chineseredbud

116

NATURAL DYE

Some trees, such as blackthorn and magnolia , begin to flower even before their leaves unfurl, which may help pollinators find their flowers more easily. After pollination, fruits such as mock oranges and apples , as well as seed pods of trees such as laburnum

When pollinated, blossoms grow into fruits.

Showers of yellow flowers give this tree its other name, “golden rain.”

These beautiful flowering branches spread out and provide shade in hot, tropical environments.

timeBlossom

In 2018, scientists created a natural dye using the bright red flowers of the royal poinciana tree. This dye can be used to color silk and cotton fabrics.

Royal poinciana Laburnum

117 and Chinese redbud , can take many months to develop. Although people usually grow flowering trees for their attractive flowers or edible fruit, some blossoms, such as those of magnolia, are also used in perfumes and traditional Chinese medicine. In Japan, festivals are held in early spring to celebrate the beauty of blossoming trees, particularly cherry and plum, with people coming from around the world to view the magnificent displays.

These delicate pink and white blossomsfruitproduceinfall.

Thick petals help flowers pollinationwithstandbybig,clumsybeetles.

Magnolia flowers have bloomed since the time of the dinosaurs. Chinesetreefringe Magnolia Jacaranda Blackthorn Apple

The blue flowers are produced for up to two months.

These flowerssnow-whitefeathery, are mildy fragrant.

A healthy apple tree can produce fruits for more than 100 years.

Each bud opens into a five-petaled flower in early spring.

Not all plants grow in soil. Some, known as epiphytes, anchor themselves onto other plants or tree trunks instead. These plants do not take nutrients from their hosts, however; they absorb water and nutrients from the air and rain, or sometimes from the dead leaves that collect around their base.

Bird’s nest fern Fissidens moss

Dense cushions of this moss grow in shady, damp areas.

Staghornfern

Orthotrichum moss Bristly moss produces spores that can grow into new moss plants. These stiff leaves are specially adapted to absorb moisture from the air. The undivided fronds grow up to 59 in (150 cm) in length.

118

Tillandsiaairplant

Mosses such as fissidens moss or orthotrichum moss can often be seen growing on walls or tree trunks. These tiny plants survive by storing water like a sponge. They then use this water to make food. Spanish moss is not really a moss at all, but a flowering plant. It is one of about onLivingair

Spanish moss Silvery leaves hang in chains. Forked fronds like a deer’s antlers give this plant its name.

DancingladiesorchidBromeliad

Rain forests are divided into four layers, each with its own unique set of plants and animals. Fungi living on the dark forest floor break down plant matter. Shrubs and bushes in the under canopy shelter small animals and predators in the shadow of a full, leafy canopy, which is home to birds and climbing animals. Emergent trees tower above all others, housing high fliers such as eagles and bats.

These yellow flowers resemble the golden gowns of dancing ladies, giving this orchid its name.

Longfernstrap

The frondsstrap-shaped grow up to 3 ft (1 m) long. Leaves are covered with a waxy layer to reduce evaporation.

LIVING LAYERS

Necklace o rchid Waterproof leaves come in many colors and collect pools of water at their center.

Long strings of flowers have a sweet scent to attract insect pollinators.

UnderForestCanopyfloorcanopyEmergentlayer

Frogs, insects, and even crabs can be found living in bromeliad pools.

The crowns of fronds at the top of this plant and other epiphytic ferns, such as the bird’s nest fern and the long strap fern, also collect water and falling leaves, which provide much-needed nutrients for these plants.

119 650 plants known as air plants. They take their name from their ability to use their leaves to absorb water from the air around them. Many epiphytic orchids grow in humid environments such as rain forests. They collect moisture from the air, too, but use fleshy roots to do this, rather than their leaves. The staghorn fern also uses its roots to take in water from its humid Male bees attack the orchid, mistaking it for a rival, and pollinating it as they do so. environment, producing fronds that lie flat against the tree trunk to prevent them from drying out.

FIGSTRANGLER aMahathat,WatIn inmonasteryBuddhist aofheadthearoundwrapsfigstrangleraThailand,Ayutthaya, seedsmallaaslifestartsfigoftypeThisstatue.Buddhabroken bird.aassuchanimal,anbybranchtreeaondropped absorbingtree,theoftrunkthedowngrowrootsseedling’sthegerminating,After burrowtheyground,thereachtheyOncebranches.theondepositssoilfromnutrients stretchingshootsitssendandfasterdeveloptofigstranglerthehelpingsoil,theinto networkaintrunkitsenclosingtree,hostthearoundwraprootsManysunlight.forhigher figsStranglertree.thekillingevensometimesgrows,itastightensandthickensthat houses.entireandwallsincludingway,theiringetsthatanythingovergrow

In temperate forests, plant life has to adapt to the four seasons. Flowers must shoot up early in the spring, before the trees start growing leaves blocking the sunlight. Then plants that have evolved to live in the shade take over, such as ferns and mosses, surviving on the little light that filters through.

Squill Flower stems are held above the leaves to attract pollinators.

Cushions of moss can reach 4 in (10 cm) in height.

ldliWgaricCalypsoorchidLady’sslipperorchid

The hairs attract insects for pollination, but this orchid does not produce nutritious nectar.

floorforest

flowersstar-shapedThese have a musky smell. anemoneWood These edible leaves have a garlicky smell and flavor.

Hosta Broom forkmoss

plantsFlowering

The

Bell-shaped flowers carpet forest floors in western Europe in spring.

The shapedpouch-petals force insects to brush past the yellow pollen above, pollination.aiding

Large-floweredtrillium

Each pinna (leaflet) has a lobe that sticks up at its base, giving it the shape of a sword hilt. Six tepals grow around the anthers. The tepals curl back toward the stalk to advertise the flower to pollinators. Fawn lily plantThisis poisonous but, if cooked properly, its root can be made into bread.

A striped bract surrounds and covers each flower spike. Dense clumps grow slowly but can reach 3 ft (1 m) wide. Each leaf is no more than 1 ⁄3 in (9 mm) long.

The wood anemone is one of the first flowers to emerge in early spring. Squill and wild garlic soon follow, shooting up from underground bulbs and soaking up sunlight with their long leaves before the trees above burst into leaf. These plants are known as “spring ephemerals” because they spend just a few weeks in bloom before dying back, ready for next spring. The large-flowered trillium survives like this for up to 70 years. Enclosed by a thick green canopy of leaves, the forest floor is dark, cool, and damp throughout the summer, ideal conditions for sword ferns and mosses to grow. In autumn the leaves fall from the trees, insulating the earth in the colder months and building up a thick layer of matter to enrich the soil.

The three-petaled flowers first appear when this plant is 7–10 years old.

Swordfern

Pincushion moss

Jack-in-the-pulpit

Satsukiazalea

Japanese wisteriaBonsai

This 18th-century Japanese print shows women examining a plant seller’s bonsai. Showers of purple flowers make wisteria a popular bonsai vine.

These flowersfunnel-shaped can range from under 4 ⁄5 in (2 cm) to 6 3 ⁄4 in (17 cm) across. Bright red berries cover female trees throughout the winter. Dense growth on top makes this a favorite among bonsai lovers.

winterberryJapaneseScots pine Each miniature apple is up to 2 ⁄5 in (1 cm) across, about one-fifth the size of a regular crab apple. The smallestbonsai grows just 2 in (5 cm) tall.

Bonsai

124 plantsFlowering

The word “bonsai” means “planted in a container” and is the Asian art of growing miniature trees. The small pot helps restrict growth, while the branches are skillfully pruned to keep the plant small and mimic the natural shape of the full-size tree.

Although they usually reach a height of only 5–10 in (13–25 cm), bonsai trees bear flowers and fruit. Some species, such as the Japanese wisteria and satsuki azalea, are particularly popular for their beautiful displays of flowers, while others, including crab apples and dwarf pomegranates, produce tiny fruits. Bonsai

Crabsellerapple

Rocks are often used to create dramatic bonsai designs.

Chineseelm

Dramatic shapes are created by pruning or twisting branches around wires, which are later removed. Fall leaves make a colorful display popular with bonsai enthusiasts.

PRUNING A BONSAI Special scissors are used to trim bonsai branches in order to make an attractive tree shape, while preventing the trees from growing too quickly.

Chinesejuniper

Dwarfpomegranate

The branches and trunk of this bonsai have been trained to give it a windswept look.

Bonsai 125 requires careful pruning of the shoots and roots, and it takes skill not to kill the trees in the process. The Chinese elm bonsai is more likely to survive mistakes made by beginners. One Chinese juniper in Japan has been proven to be about 1,000 years Japanese maple

Pink, white, red, or purple blossoms usually bloom in May, which is called “satsuki” in Japanese—giving this tree its name. old, with centuries of careful pruning and shaping by bonsai masters. With enough time and care, a bonsai tree can become extremely valuable. The most expensive bonsai ever sold was in 2011. It had a price tag of 100,000,000 Japanese yen, equivalent to around $1.3 million (£840,000).

What is a grass?

fdMeaowoxtailflower

Growing point ❯ Grasses can survive continual grazing by wild and farm animals because their growing point is at the base of their stem, close to the soil. When nibbling animals eat the leaves, they leave this growing point intact, allowing the plant to regrow easily.

126 plantsFlowering

Grasses are short plants with long, narrow leaves, jointed stems, and flowers that are almost always arranged in spikes. This group of plants first appeared on land more than 66 million years ago, evolving over time into the 12,000 species of grasses today. Grasses cover huge areas of land on every continent and are more widely spread than any other type of plant.

Grasses produce flower spikes with many small flowers, which are wind-pollinated. As they mature, each flower dangles its anthers in the wind, allowing millions of pollen grains to be blown away to fertilize the feathery, sticky stigmas of another grass. Since grasses do not have to attract animal pollinators, their flowers have lost their colorful petals. Grass flowers Anthers poke out of the flowers and bob in the wind, releasing pollen grains.

Rush This snowy woodrush has long, thin leaves that may look like those of a grass, but it is actually a rush and belongs to a related family of plants. Seagrass These seagrasses live on the ocean floor, providing an important habitat and food source for a wide range of fish and other marine life.

Sedge Sedges are wetland plants with grasslike leaves, but you can tell them apart from grasses and rushes by their triangular stems. Grasslands

Roots ❯ Grasses have very dense root systems that hold the plant in place even when being tugged at by large grazing animals. These root clusters also hold the soil together, preventing erosion. Sweet vernal gra s s Leaf sheaths grow at the base of each grass leaf. Wrapped around the stem, leaf sheaths prevent stems from breaking and also protect the growing point.

Grass imposters

Grassland habitats cover about a third of all land on Earth. They are found in regions too dry to support a forest but too wet to be a desert. From African savannas to North American prairies to European meadows, grasslands support a huge variety of wildlife around the world, such as the Grant’s gazelles seen here. Wildfires often sweep across grasslands, encouraging thick grass regrowth and removing tree seedlings. Leaf blade ❯ Many grasses have long, thin leaves with parallel veins running down the length of each blade. Each new leaf emerges from within the base of the older blade.

plantsFlowering

Blue fescue Grasslike leaves grow from woody stems, unlike other grasses.

The blue-gray leaves grow in clumps up to 7 ¾ in (20 cm) in height. Divided flower stems look like a crow’s foot, giving this grass its name. This tiny grass is one of two flowering plants native to Antarctica. Grasslands make up around one-third of all land on Earth.

When you think of grass, you might picture a garden lawn, but there are thousands of very different species, including crops such as rice and even bamboo. They may not be the most colorful plants, but they are some of the most important. Grasses grow in habitats around the world, including deserts, mountains, and rain forests.

Crowfootgrass

Types grassesof Clumpingbamboo Antarctic hair grass

Orientalfountaingrass Soft flower spikes look like gray bottle brushes. Flower spikes look like fluffy pink clouds. bloodgrass m)(4ft13

TALL AND USEFUL Elephant grass can grow into a tall plant quickly, without needing much water or food. Thriving even in poor soil conditions, African elephant grass is used as fodder for cattle and elephants. It is also planted to prevent soil erosion in dry or overgrazed lands. Scientists have explored the use of the Asian variety of this grass as a biofuel, burning it to produce electricity.

Although most grasses look similar, some have unique features that make them stand out. While bamboos grow woody stems that allow some species to reach up to 160 ft (50 m) in height, the Antarctic hair grass lives in such a harsh, cold climate that it grows only a few centimeters tall. Most grasses come in shades of green, but some are popular for their colors, such as the red leaves of the Japanese bloodgrass and the blue-gray foliage of the blue fescue. The red flower spikes of the hair-awn muhly grass add a splash of color to gardens, while many people grow pampas grass for their tall, feathery flower spikes, which blow in the wind.

grassHares-tail

Pampasgrass

This tall grass can reach 9 3 ⁄4 in (3 m) in height.

Bloodred leaf tips fade to bright green at the bottom.

Japanese

These fluffy flower tufts are popular with gardeners. The flowerflattened spikes are just 1 ⁄3 in (1 cm) long.

grassesofTypes

Spanglegrass muhlygrassHair-awn

is grown in watery fields called paddies. Ears of wheat hold up to 80 grains each. Oats are usually crushed and made into porridge.

plantsFlowering

is dried to make cane sugar. When

Drought-tolerantcereals sugar sweet sap stem ready to sugarcaneharvest, height grown man.

andGrassesgrains Sugarcane Wheat Sorghum Rice Grainsofrice Oat Oat grains Wheat grains Sorghum grains This

can be twice the

of a

are an important source of food in Africa. Crystals of

extracted from this

Grasses produce the grains that feed the world. Grasses with edible seeds or grains are known as cereal plants and have been cultivated for thousands of years. Today, cereals are harvested on a massive scale around the world. plantwetland

The

The most widely grown cereal plant is corn Corn kernels are mainly used as cattle feed, or turned into a liquid biofuel called ethanol. Next comes rice, an essential food crop for more than half of the people on the planet, especially in Asia. Wheat, the third most important grain, is usually ground into flour and used to make bread and pasta. Barley, which comes fourth, is used both for food and to make alcoholic drinks. Fifth is sugarcane, a large grass grown for its sweet sap, which is extracted by crushing the stems. The syrupy liquid is evaporated until it is so concentrated that it will harden when cooled, and the resulting solid is ground up into sugar crystals.

131 grainsandGrasses

milletPearl Corn Barley Barley grains Corn kernels Durum wheat grains Rye grainsMillet grains The areatotalused to grow corn is larger than the size Germanyof . Long cylindrical ears hold up to 3,000 grains each. Each thread, known as a silk, is attached to a separate kernel. Grains can be soaked, sprouted, and dried—a process known as malting—for extra flavor. grainsNutritious are made into dark brown bread. grainsProtein-rich are made into pasta. The grains are a good source of protein and fiber. Rye Durumwheat

RICE TERRACES

A rice farmer working on these spectacular, lush-green fields needs a good head for heights. The precisely stepped staircases, which rise almost vertically in some parts, are located about 174 miles (280 km) from Vietnam’s capital city, Hanoi. One of the world’s most widely consumed foods, rice is grown all over southeast Asia and is hugely important to the economy of many countries.

These layered rice fields in the Mu Cang Chai district of northeastern Vietnam were carved out of the mountainsides hundreds of years ago. With simple hand tools, early farmers labored to make use of every scrap of fertile land. Today, the terraces produce much of the country’s rice. Covering about 4,900 acres (2,000 hectares), the plants change color from green to gold with the seasons. Growing rice is still hard work, even today. It is difficult to use machinery on such a steep incline so work is done by hand. After planting, farmers are constantly weeding, and in the run up to harvest, the terraces are kept flooded with stream water carried by farmers down the mountains in bamboo pipes.

Strawbe rry

134 plantsFlowering

Root ❯ A root vegetable is the underground part of the plant. It can be the plant’s food store in the winter and contains starch, sugar, and vitamins. High in nutrients and fiber, edible roots are an important part of a healthy diet.

Seed ❯ Most fleshy fruits, such as this kiwi, develop as a tasty package to hold the seeds. Fleshy fruits often change color as they ripen so that animals can spot and eat them, dispersing their seeds.

What is a vegetable? Vegetables are any edible part of a plant except for the fruit. We eat fleshy roots, succulent stems, flowers, buds, and leaves. Because all these parts of the plant are making or storing food, they are rich in vitamins, which make them good food for us.

Tasty bananas toughready-wrappedcomeinaprotectiveskin.

Leaf ❯ A leaf makes food and so contains energy and minerals. The fiber in leaves that makes them sturdy helps human digestion.

What is a fruit? A fruit develops from a plant’s fertilized flower. It encloses and protects the seeds while they develop, then helps to spread them. The sweet flesh of most fruits encourages animals—including humans— to eat them, spreading their seeds in the process.

A ripe strawberry is bright red, and packed with vitamins and nutrients.

Carrot

Banana K iwi Bananas are a type of berry, but most have been bred to not contain seeds. Cabbage

vegetable?orFruit 135

False fruits and vegetables

Rhubarb is an example of a false fruit. It is actually a stem vegetable. A tomato is an example of a false vegetable. It is actually a fruit. Stem ❯ A stem transports food to and from the roots of a plant and is full of minerals. When stems are soft enough, they can be eaten as vegetables, raw or cooked. Any part of a plant we eat is either a fruit or a vegetable. Fruits develop from fertilized flowers, and contain seeds that are spread when they are eaten. Any edible part of the plant that is not a fruit is a vegetable. This can be a root, a stem, a leaf, or even the buds of developing flowers.

We often use the terms “fruit” and “vegetable,” based on how we eat plants—in sweet or savory dishes—rather than how they grow. So, a sweet-tasting vegetable is sometimes called a fruit, while a savory salad fruit may be called a vegetable!

Fruit vegetable?or Pear Apple Fig Figs are eaten fresh and dried. The thin red peel forms an attractive layer around the flesh, to attract animals. Brown pear seeds are found in a central core, within the fleshy fruit.

Asparagus

The world’s heaviest carrot was grown by Christopher Qualley of Minnesota, in 2017. It weighed in at 22 1 ⁄2 lb (10.17 kg)—around the same weight as that of two cats!

Lotus root

Parsnip The red juice from beets is used as a natural food coloring. This root wintersweeterbecomesafterfrosts. The white root turns purple when exposed to sunlight. Air channels form a distinctive pattern. This plant’s bitter roots are used to treat many illnesses.

Arrowhead Heaviest carrot 22 1 ⁄2 lb (10.17 kg) Cats These underground stems grow at the bottom of ponds. (Weight of two cats)

Many underground vegetables, including parsnips, beets, carrots, rutabagas, and daikons, are made of swollen roots, but others store energy in different ways. Arrowhead and taro plants store energy in bulblike stems called corms, while lotus roots are modified stems that grow

136 plantsFlowering undergroundGoing

Vegetables that grow underground can be stored for long periods of time, making them important food crops, especially when other foods are scarce. The swollen roots store energy, which the plants use to regrow in the spring—if they are not eaten first!

Turnip Dandelion B eet

COLOSSAL CARROT

This tropical root is used to produce flour and can also be eaten as a vegetable.

Rutabaga

Oca

The tubersknobblybecome sweeter when left in the sun. Long white roots grow up to 23 1 ⁄2 in (60 cm) long and are a popular food in Asia. Colorful varieties are grown for their high vitamin content. This underground stem is an important food in tropical regions of Africa and Asia.

Taro

137 horizontally, called rhizomes. Potatoes and ocas are tubers made from swollen stems and have spots called eyes from which new shoots can grow. Many root vegetables are vital food sources. Cassava, for example, can be grown in poor, dry soils and is a staple food in many parts of Africa.

These crunchy roots taste sweet and come in a variety of colors. These peppery roots are eaten raw in salads

This large root can grow up to 12 in (30 cm) long and is eaten as a winter food by people and cattle.

Potato Cassava Radish Daikon Carrot

The dandelion is perhaps best known for its yellow flowers, but its roots can be used to make tea, which is believed to have medicinal properties.

Soft fruits

The dark purple berries are used to make jams and syrups.

Ripening fruits change color from white to red to purple.

Cranberry sauce is traditionally eaten with turkey at ThanksgivingintheUS. This hardy plant can extremesurvivecold.

BlackCcurrantloudberr

y Lingonberry

138

Mulberry Cranberr y

Most soft fruits grow on bushes and shrubs, but mulberries, Chinese bayberries, and goji berries grow on trees. Cranberry bushes are unusual because they grow in bogs. These are flooded before harvest, and special machines called eggbeaters are sent in to knock the cranberries from the

Up to 25 red berries eachproducedareonstem.

The fruits are delicious fresh or in a jam. This is a cluster of “drupelets”— mini fruits each with a seed inside.

The juicy, thin-skinned fruits we call berries, with pulpy flesh and seeds rather than a stone, are also known as soft fruits. Most are sweet, some are sour, but all are rich in vitamins. Wild berries have been an important source of food for thousands of years.

Raspberry berryGoji Red currant Blackberry These coloredamber-fruits are rich in vitamin C. These oval berries have a sweet-sour taste and are eaten dried.

Blueberry Grapes Chinese bayberry trees can produce up to 220 lb (100 kg) of fruit in one summer. Dark blueberries grow up to 1 ⁄2 in (1.6 cm) across. Vine leaves are edible, too, wrapped round savory fillings.

139 plants so they float away and can be skimmed from the surface of the water. In Scandinavia, cloudberries and lingonberries are mostly picked from wild bushes. Grapes hang in bunches from long vines and come in several different colors, from green to black. They are eaten fresh, made into wine, and dried into raisins and currants. Strawberries ripen on small, low-growing plants. The big, fat, juicy fruits we eat today have been cultivated from tiny, but delicious, wild strawberries the size of peas.

Grapes have been grown for winemaking for more thanyears8,000 . Yellow seeds are actually tiny fruits on a swollen stem. Clusters of fruits can contain up to 300 grapes.

ChineseStrawberrybayberry

VOLCANIC VINEYARD Centuries ago, erupting volcanoes covered the Spanish island of Lanzarote in ash, ending traditional farming but creating a unique environment for grapevines. Although it may not look it, the volcanic ash in the wine-making region of La Geria is very fertile. This nutrition-rich soil combined with warm days and cold nights make this an ideal region for growing grapes.

There is not much rain on Lanzarote, but in La Geria’s vineyards, an ingenious method of cultivating vines ensures that every available drop of moisture reaches the growing plants. Each young vine is placed in a shallow individual pit. Any rainfall or overnight dew is channeled down the sloping walls of the pit to reach the roots of the vine nestling at the bottom. The low, surrounding semicircular stone walls protect the vines from the wind and help prevent the ground from drying out. This technique has been used successfully for many years. Around 10,000 vines grow in the La Geria valley, producing red and white wines. The area is recognized as a Protected Landscape.

142

The green, unripe fruit can be eaten before the almond inside hardens. Hard and bitter, olives are processed before eating, or pressed for their oil.

fruitsStone

These thin-skinned, firm, often fleshy fruits, with a single, hard seed at the center, are known as drupes or, more commonly, stone fruits. Many have been cultivated from wild trees to produce bigger, juicier fruits.

Green and unripe, this fruit tastes like an apple but then turns purple and sweet like a date. These red fruits usually grow in pairs on a single, short stem. Acai

The sweet fruits of the hardy date palm have been a vital source of food for desert peoples for thousands of years. Delicious fresh, they can also be dried and stored for longer periods of time. The sweet, juicy flesh of peaches is delicious and is eaten fresh, though some people don’t like Fuzzy skin protects the easily bruised flesh of this fruit. The large, round seed makes up 80 percent of the berry’s interior.

Oliveberry

Plu m Cherry Almond Jujube

Dried shriveledandplums are known as prunes. Peach

This flat, oval seed can grow up to 2¾ in (7 cm) long and is tricky to cut out.

Mango

DamsonApricot Sloe

This fragrant fruit is eaten both fresh and dried. These high-growing fruits are picked with the help of ropes, ladders, or cherry-picker trucks. The pulp of this bitter fruit is used to make jams.

Nectarine Dates

its fuzzy skin and prefer its smooth relative, the nectarine. Some stone fruits are not sweet but sour—the sloe must be cooked up with lots of sugar. The flesh of olives is hard as well as bitter. But when crushed in a press, a greenish-gold oil can be extracted. Some stone fruits, such palmsDatecan produce up to 310 lb (140 kg) of fruityear.each as almonds, are grown for their edible seeds rather than their flesh. Some people do eat whole unripe green almonds, which are fuzzy, crunchy, and tart, with a soft, jelly-filled seed.

The hard, wrinkled stone protects almond-shapedanseed. These small, slightly sour fruits are used to make preserves and flavor spirits.

Scientists believe that the dozens of citrus fruits available today can be traced back to just three ancestral plants, the pomelo, the mandarin orange, and the citron. Today, oranges make up more than 50 percent of all citrus fruits produced worldwide. Their sharp, tangy

Citrus fruits are a type of berry with a pulpy, juicy flesh, covered by a thick peel. They are widely eaten because of their tangy flavors and are rich in vitamins. Originally from Asia, citrus fruits are now grown in tropical countries around the world.

Pomelo

B

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fruitsJuicy

This finger-shaped fruit smells like a mix of lemon and lavender. Oran ge

The bright red flesh gives this orange its name. A regular-sized orange contains about one-third of a cup of juice. Buddha’shand lood orange

The pale flesh tastes like a sweet grapefruit.

Jamaican ta ngelo

145 flavor comes from the high content of citric acid, which is highest in lemons and limes. Unlike most citrus fruits, the Buddha’s hand has little edible flesh and is instead used in perfumes and as an offering in Buddhist temples. The peel of most citrus fruits is tough and bitter, while the segments inside are juicy. The exception to this rule is the kumquat, which has a sweet peel and a bitter center. The Jamaican tangelo is a natural mix of an orange and a pomelo, with very juicy, sweet-tasting flesh and a wrinkled, fragrant peel. Lemon juice, which cures scurvy, became compulsory on British ships in 1795.

The yellow outer layer, which is full of flavor, is called the zest. These knobbly fruits are used to make citrus-scented perfumes. The large fruits can grow up to 5 in (15 cm) across.

The thick, white inner layer is called the pith. A tangelo’s skin is loose and easy to peel. The thick peel is used to make jams.

Kaffirlime Kumquat

Grapefruit

These bite-sized fruits do not require peeling.

Lemon Citron Keylime

The bright green peel turns yellow as the fruit ripens.

The white fruits inside jackfruits can be used Tropical fruits come in a wide range of shapes, sizes, and flavors. These colorful fruits grow in warm, wet regions but are now shipped all over the world where they have become very popular.

While all the tropical fruits shown here are commonly eaten raw and whole, many are also used in a range of other ways. Pineapples and passion fruits are often juiced, while rambutans and guavas are made into jams.

PersimmonPapaya Jackfruit

The long, soft spines turn red or yellow when the fruit is ripe. This sweet fruit is usually eaten like an apple. The spiky skin protects tangy yellow flesh.

Each fruit contains around 250 edible seeds.

Star fruit

The world’s largest tree-borne fruit, it can grow up to 36 in (90 cm) long. Pineapple

Tropical fruits

Sweet, fleshy fruit contains spicy-tasting seeds that can be used as a substitute for pepper.

Passion fruit

This giant fruit, packed full of smaller fruits inside, can weigh up to 121 lb (55 kg). This star-shaped fruit comes in sweet and sour varieties.

146

Mangosteen

Dragonfruit Inside the fruit Duria n Chikoo Rambutan

147 in baking, and their stringy texture has made them popular as an alternative to meat in vegetarian and vegan cooking. Asian dishes are sometimes sweetened using star fruits and papayas Persimmons are used to add flavor to smoothies and cold desserts, while lychees are poached in syrup to be eaten with ice cream. The smelly durian has a unique flavor that some love and others hate. Known as the king of fruits, durians are used to make a huge variety of sweet treats, including candies, cakes, and ice cream. treerambutanEachproduces more than 6,000 fruits in a year.

Vivid pink flesh tastes like a mix of pear and strawberry. Speckled flesh tastes faintly of kiwi fruit. The juicy flesh has a grainy texture and tastes like caramel.

Guava

Hairy, brittle skin encloses edible white flesh inside. White segments are sweet and tangy. This perfumed fruit encases a large, oval-shaped seed. Inedible skin Lychee

Cream-colored flesh tastes like sweet custard with a hint of onion.

148 plantsFlowering

Nicknamed “little mouse watermelon,” this grape-sized Mexican fruit tastes like a cucumber. The striped fruits are small enough to fit in the palm of your hand. The flesh of a watermelon is a92thirst-quenchingpercentwater!

Cucamelon Tigger melon

Gac Watermelon

These juicy fruits originally came from Africa and the Middle East but are enjoyed all over the world today. They grow on vines and have a tough skin, and there are two main types—sweet melons and watermelons. Sweet melons include honeydew , charentais ,

This rare Indian melon has fragrant flesh and stripes like a beach ball. When ripe, this melon has spiny red skin, yellow flesh, and slimy red seeds.

Crenshawmelon

melonsMagnificent

Kajari melon

Melons are the sweeter relatives of gourds, cucumbers, and pumpkins, and they come in all shapes, sizes, tastes, and colors. There are thousands of varieties, but they all grow best where the climate is warm and there is plenty of water.

Large, flat-bottomed, with a sweet, slightly spicy flavor, some consider this the king of melons!

Charentaismelon Yubari King melonmelonBitter Korean melon Sweet, pale green flesh is enclosed within a thick, waxy rind.

Honeydewmelon

melonsMagnificent 149

Warty, unripe fruits are used in many Asian dishes. Considered a rare treat just two of these fruits sold for $28,000 (£21,500) in Japan in 2016. Jellylike flesh tastes like a cross between a banana and a cucumber. This thin-skinned fruit can be andwhole—rindeatenall. This melon takes its name from the fact that it keeps well, almost until Christmas! The orange flesh is a good source of vitamins. HYDROPONIC MELONS Hydroponics is a method of growing plants indoors in a liquid full of nutrients. It can produce more food than crops grown in soil because of the controlled environment, in which temperature, light, and humidity can be regulated. This is a good method for growing melons, which need a lot of water.

Kajari , Korean , tigger , Santa Claus , Yubari King , and most of the other melons shown above. Even the odd-looking horned melon , an important source of food and water in the Kalahari Desert of Namibia, and the prickly gac from southeast Asia, Santa Claus melon Horned melon are related. The most commonly grown melon is the watermelon. It’s also the heaviest. An average specimen is about 22 lb (10 kg), but the record-breaking biggest weighed in at 350 lb (159 kg)—that’s equal to the weight of an adult male panda!

Macad amia

This shell is a fruit’s fleshy body that happens to be hard.

Englishwalnut

Frilly husk covers all but the tip of the nut.

The shell changes color from green to beige as the seed ripens, opening with a pop.

150

The two halves of the wrinkly fruit are separated by a partition.

Almond P istachio

A bit nutty

Turkishhazelnut

Nuts have been eaten by humans for thousands of years. Their high fat and protein contents make them a nutritious food. They do not rot or perish quickly, so early humans could store them for the winter months. Many culinary nuts are the seeds of fleshy stone fruits similar to plums, True nuts, such as chestnuts, acorns, and hazelnuts, are hard fruits containing a seed. Many of the nuts we eat are actually the seeds of fruits, or false nuts. To avoid confusion between the two, all edible nuts are called culinary nuts. Coconut Hollow seeds are creamy white with a clear liquid inside. The shells of these large nuts are the hardest among all nuts. These edible seeds are packed with fiber, protein, and healthy fats.

This is a seed and not the entire fruit.

TRUE VS. FALSE NUT A true nut is a hardened fruit containing one seed. False nuts develop inside fruits, and are more like the core of an apple. Acorn (true nut)Brazil nuts (false nut) Hazelnuts

Pinenut

151 including almonds, pistachios, coconuts, English walnuts, pecans, and cashews, while pine nuts are seeds found inside pine cones.

Hollow where nuts were cracked and ground with a stone by ancient people about 10,000 years ago.

Sweet chestnut

Extra-hard shell can be cracked open by birds with very tough beaks.

Peanut

Brazilnut Cashew

Stubby pine nuts can be up to 3 in (8 cm) long. Cashew stalks swell as the fruit ripens.

Peanuts are the strangest so-called nut. Once pollinated, peanut flowers push a stalk into the soil to produce an underground bean pod containing up to four nutlike seeds. Since they grow beneath the soil, they are also known as groundnuts. Of the nuts shown here, hazelnuts and sweet chestnuts are the only “true” nuts. Their hard shells are the flesh of the fruit, while the part we eat is the seed.

A toxic resin in the cashew shell can irritate the skin.

The edible seed is covered by a thin, reddish brown seed coat. These wrinkled nuts have a buttery flavor.

A spiny sheath protects up to three developing nuts.

Prehistoric nutting stone

Pecan Cashew nuts

Brussel s sprouts

greensLeafycontain vitamin K, which helps woundsheal Small, round leaf buds resemble baby cabbages. These colorful plants are packed with vitamin K and other essential nutrients.

Lettuce Radicchio

Raw leaves are often added to salads.

These fibrous, wrinkly leaves keep their shape when cooked.

Rainbowchard

Arugula

Savoycabbage

plantsFlowering Eat greens!your

Almost 2,500 plants are known to have leaves you can eat, but some taste better than others. While many leafy vegetables are eaten raw in salads, others are cooked into a wide variety of dishes around the world. Packed with nutrients, these edible leaves come in many colors and shapes and form an essential part of a healthy diet.

Peppery leaf adds a spicy flavor to salads.

The red leaves give this plant its other name, red chicory.

For thousands of years, people have cultivated leafy vegetables to produce new varieties that give better harvests and more interesting flavors. The results of these gradual changes can be clearly seen in the differences between vegetables like Brussels sprouts, savoy cabbage, kale, red cabbage, and broccoli, all of which are the same species of plant.

Inner leaves are pale because they receive less sunlight. These delicate leaves lose water and shrivel up when cooked.

The heaviest cabbage ever grown was a whopping 138 1 ⁄3 lb (62.7 kg), the average weight of two young children. It was grown in Alaska in 2012.

Each was bred by humans for bigger leaves, more leaf buds, thicker leaf stalks, or different colors. The vibrant rainbow chard and radicchio plants seen today are also a result of careful selection by breeders over time. The crisp lettuce, too, was once a weed with prickly leaves and stems and was grown by the ancient Egyptians for its oily seeds.

Watercress

Kale Redcabbage Bok choy Tightly packed ball of leaves

SpinachEndive greens!yourEat

GIANT CABBAGE

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Heaviest cabbage Children (138 1 ⁄3 lb/62.7 kg) (Weight of two children) The bitter leaves become sweeter after a frost. These peppery leaves grow both on land and in streams.

The crunchy leaf stalks can be eaten raw or stir-fried.

The leaves of the red cabbage are sweeter and tougher than those of the white cabbage.

The world produced 13.3 million tons of chickpeas in 2016, most of which was grown in India. This harvest weighed twice as much as the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, known to weigh 6.5 million tons. CHICKPEAS GALORE Chickpeas 13.3 million tons The Great Pyramid (Weight of two pyramids) Pink beans or young seed pods are both popular side dishes. These pale beans have a buttery texture and flavor. Each small pod contains two circular seeds. Lentils are rich in vitamins and minerals. These flattened beans grow to 1 in (2.5 cm) in length. Its distinct black spots give this seed its name. Short pods contain two or three edible seeds.

Humans started farming pulses because their seeds can be easily dried and stored for when food is scarce. Lentils are one of our oldest crops, with archaeological evidence showing that humans ate them more than 13,000 years ago in Greece, while 7,500-year-old chickpeas have been found in excavations in Turkey. beansand

Limabeans

Peas, beans, and lentils are types of seeds known as pulses. They are rich in proteins, fiber, and nutrients and have been eaten by humans around the world for thousands of years. Today, India is the biggest grower and consumer of pulses, particularly lentils.

Runner beans

Peas

Wingedbeans Four frilly wings run along the length of each edible pod. Fava beans Black-e yed peas Up to 14 beans are produced per pod. Adzuki beans

154 plantsFlowering

ChickpeasLentils

A scar on the seed lets water in, allowing it to germinate. The red speckles disappear when this bean is cooked. Around six to seven round peas are usually produced in each pod. The white flowers of the snow pea usually self-pollinate. These small dried beans come in many different colors. Borlotti beans

beansMung Peas

Today, we eat the fresh green seed pods of winged beans, runner beans, and snow peas, as well as the seeds themselves. Fava beans, lima beans, and borlotti beans also have tasty protein-filled seeds. Soybeans can be used to feed farm animals, make oil, and produce foods such as tofu.

These tiny beans are often cooked with sugar in Asian baked goods. Unripe pods are eaten raw or in a stir-fry.

“Pulse” comes from the Latin puls, meaning “thick gruel, porridge, or mush.”

Drought-resistant tepary bean plants can survive very dry conditions and thrive in hot countries like their native Mexico. It is important to cook all beans before eating because they contain proteins that can be harmful if not destroyed by heat.

Soybeans

Teparybeans Snow peas

Although they are typically eaten as vegetables, squashes are actually the fruits of creeping vine plants that belong to the gourd family. There are many types of squashes, and they come in lots of curious shapes. hooked neck gives this warty yellow squash its name. stripy squash can grow up to 19 1 ⁄2 in (50 cm) long. Edible seeds, held inside bright yellow flesh, are a good source of zinc. pumpkin

Green

The round fruits change color from green to orange as they ripen. pu mpkin world record for the heaviest pumpkin ever grown was in 2016 for a fruit weighing 2,624 lb (1,190.5 kg), around the same weight as a hatchback car. 2,624 (1,190.5lbkg) Hatchback car hes eck

156 plantsFlowering

pumpkinHeaviest

Almost all species of squash originally come from Central and South America but are now grown around the world, particularly in India and China. These large and fleshy fruits are rich in vitamins. The vitamin content is particularly high in squashes with orange and yellow flesh, such

All squashed up! A

squas

Crook n

PLUMP PUMPKIN The

Pumpkin

This

Cushaw

These squashesgiantcan weigh up to 39 1 ⁄2 lb (18 kg) but are much tastier when smaller.

Shaped like a flying saucer, these fruits are a slightly sweeter version of a zucchini.

Thick necks do not contain seeds so yield a lot of flesh. Long necks can stretch to more than 35 in (90 cm). Dried luffa

Butternut squash Luffa squashesPattypan Gourd Blue

157 as green pumpkins and Hubbard squashes Most of these fruits are cooked and eaten as savory dishes such as soups and stews, but some sweeter varieties, including pumpkin and butternut squash, are also baked into cakes and pies. Cucumbers are typically eaten raw or pickled. Edible pattypan squashes are popular fall decorations, while other squashes with hard skins, known as gourds, can be dried and used to make everyday items such as jars, bottles, or even musical instruments, including maracas, flutes, and drums.

squashHubbardHubbardTromboncinosquash

Hulusi flutes are traditional Chinese instruments made of a gourd and three bamboo pipes.

This fruit’s skin turns bitter once the luffa grows longer than 4–4 3 ⁄4 in (10–12 cm).

The teardrop-shaped fruits taste like chestnuts and are popular in Japan. The green skin is a great source of fiber.

Cucumber

The fibrous skeleton of a dried and peeled luffa can be used with soap and water as a bath sponge.

PUMPKIN BOAT RACE

Paddling giant pumpkins for canoes, contestants race around a lake at the Tualatin Pumpkin Regatta in Oregon. Held every fall, such events are hugely popular not just in the US but also countries including Canada and Germany. Pumpkins are easily converted into boats, since they are already partly hollow inside, making it a simple task to carve out space for a rower to sit inside.

Developing from star-shaped, yellow flowers, the bigger varieties of pumpkins can swell rapidly to enormous sizes— some measure more than 13 ft (4 m) around the middle and weigh 992 lb (450 kg). In the Tualatin race, competitors wearing costumes and life jackets paddle their pumpkins 295 ft (90 m) and back. Pumpkins are also the main attraction in a variety of other holidays and festivals. American families gather every year for Thanksgiving, which is famous for its pumpkin pie. At Halloween, on October 31 each year, children in many countries carve out pumpkins to look like scary or funny faces, then put a candle inside to give them an eerie glow, to frighten off evil spirits.

160 plantsFlowering

Bulbs, stems, and stalks

Largest onion Pug The bulbscylindrical turn underground.white Bulbs, such as leeks, onions, and garlic, are made up of fleshy leaves, while celeriac, asparagus, and kohlrabi are swollen stems that are tastiest eaten when young and tender. Other vegetables, Many plants make food in the warmer months and then store it in their bulbs, stems, and stalks. This makes these vegetables a valuable food source for the winter months, and humans have eaten them for thousands of years.

Fleshy leaf stalks are often stewed with sugar and eaten in desserts.

The thick stem tastes like celery and can reach up to 6 in (15 cm) across. Bark is stripped from the trunk to reveal the crunchy vegetable inside. Cardoon

When cut, these fleshy bulbs release a chemical that makes your eyes sting and water.

Harvesting palm trunks

RhubarbHeart of palm Onion Celeriac

OVERSIZED ONION In 2014, the largest ever onion was grown in the UK. The ginormous bulb weighed 18 3 ⁄4 lb (8.5 kg), approximately the same weight as a pug dog.

Spears asparagusof emerge from the earth in spring. Leaf stalks are eaten after removing the spiny leaf blades. Leek

A sparagus

The salty stems of this coastal plant are often eaten with fish. Up to 20 cloves of garlic make up each bulb.

chestnutKohlrabiWater

arechestnutsWater underwatergrown in flooded fields called paddies. Swollen stems taste like a sweeter version of broccoli. The stemundergroundcrunchy is often eaten in Chinese dishes. These conical, tender shoots of the bamboo plant are widely used in Asian cooking.

The feathery leaves, swollen stem, and seeds all taste like licorice. Fennel including rhubarb and cardoons, are the leaf stalks of the plant, although the leaves themselves are not edible. The enlarged base of fennel is made of both swollen stems and leaf stalks. The growing tips of many different types of bamboo are eaten as bamboo shoots, but harvesting them does not harm the mature plant. However, young bamboo shoots contain natural toxins, which must be removed by boiling in water. Hearts of palm are harvested from the trunks of several types of palm trees. Samphire is an asparagus-like plant that grows in coastal areas. Its stems can be eaten raw or boiled.

Garlic SamphireBambooshoot

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WITHLIVINGPLANTS

The earliest people were hunter-gatherers, always on the move searching for food such as meat, berries, and seeds. Then around 12,000 years ago, the first farming began in the Fertile Crescent, a region in the Middle East. Here, people settled down and learned to sow, harvest, and store crops— the ancestors of wild grasses—and domesticate animals.

Plants peopleand

plantswithLiving

Sowing seeds ❯ For thousands of years, people have sowed seeds by hand. Here, as the man drives the plow, the woman follows behind sowing the seeds.

How plants have changed A hard toughfewmakescoatthekernelstoeat.

Teosinte Corn Humans have cultivated many plants since farming began. Teosinte, an ancient wild relative of corn, bore just a few hard kernels. Farmers noticed that some teosinte plants produced more kernels and with a softer texture so planted these the next season. Over time, this selective farming method led to the large cobs we eat today.

Lumber is also a popular building material for houses because it is strong, insulating, and environmentally friendly. Musical instruments The woods of some trees can produce deep, rich sounds and have been used for centuries to make musical instruments.

Clothes

Paper Most paper comes from trees. Wood chips are mixed with water to make a pulp, which is flattened and dried into thin sheets.

Building materials

Modern farming methods

Not only have the plants we farm changed, but modern agricultural machines help us sow, grow, and harvest crops more easily and quickly than ever before. Over the centuries, the population of the world has exploded and continues to grow. Without modern farming methods, billions of people would go hungry.

Other ways people use plants

Cattle-drawn plow ❯ The first plows were pulled by people. The ancient Egyptians were the first to domesticate cattle and use them to pull heavier plows to cut tracks in the soil for sowing the seed.

The seed fibers of cotton and stem fibers of flax, hemp, and bamboo are often used to make fabrics. Furniture Trees provide all the lumber used to make furniture. Forests must be carefully managed to replace the trees that are used.

Farming in ancient Egypt In ancient Egypt, farming began along the banks of the Nile River. Every summer the river flooded the land, leaving fields watered and rich in nutrients. Here the ancient Egyptians grew staple foods, such as wheat and barley, as well as a variety of fruits and vegetables. To harvest a field using a machine, the entire crop must mature at the same speed and reach a similar height.

From headaches to cancer, more than 50,000 plants around the world are used to treat diseases. Cosmetics Many plant-based chemicals that are fragrant or moisturizing are used in cosmetics such as shampoos and perfumes.

Combine harvester Medicine

Fiery wasabigreensauce is eaten with sushi in Japan. These seeds have a nutty flavor and are common in Asian and Middle Eastern cuisines.

Each seed pod releases a single cumin seed when dried.

The young, green berries turn brown once dried in the sun.

SesameAllspice Dried berriesDriedseeds

This red fruit contains capsaicin, a chemical that gives chiles their spicy heat. The star-shaped fruit tastes like licorice.

Without spices—the dried seeds, fruits, roots, and bark of plants—our food would be much less tasty. For thousands of years, people have been adding spices to their cooking to flavor, color, and preserve their food. Some spices, such as turmeric and ginger, are used as health remedies, too.

Paste Fresh and turmericdriedDriedfruitsDriedseeds

The spices of life

Turmeric Star anise

Undergroundstems,orrhizomes , are ground into bright yellow powder.

Cumin Wasabi chiles Prairiefire

Vanilla Mustard Nutmeg Fenugreek

These tiny black seeds are ground to make a hot sauce.

Harvesting cinnamon Dried seeds seedDriedpods Dried seeds Dried seeds seedDriedpods Dried fruits Cinnamon sticks

The fragrant red stigmas are carefullyharvestedbyhand.

The inner bark of the cinnamon tree is harvested and cut into small sticks.

Many spices come from tropical plants from East Asia. Our appetite for their flavors makes them highly valuable, and it was the demand for spices that drove European explorers and traders to sail the globe in search of precious supplies in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Italian explorer Christopher Columbus reached the Caribbean Islands while trying to find a new spice trade route to India. Instead, he found chile peppers, which he brought back to Europe. Today we take for granted the exotic ingredients in our kitchen pantries. We can’t imagine not having pepper on the table, a hot dog without mustard, or ice cream without vanilla. The most expensive spice in the world is saffron, which is worth more than gold by weight.

The red, outer covering around this seed is used to make another spice called mace.

Each seed pod contains about a dozen cardamom seeds.

167 lifeofspicesThe

Peppercorns are the world’s most tradedcommonly spice.

Saffron

pcalBkepper

Each droopy seed pod can grow up to 6 in (15 cm) in length.

Undergroundstems have a hot, spicy flavor. Ginger cardamomGreen

Unripe fruits are cooked and dried into peppercorns. Cubelike seeds are often used in Indian cooking.

Leaves have a strong taste and in ancient Greece and Rome were fed to themhorseschariottogivestrength.

CorianderThyme

parsleyCurly Chewing these leaves can help freshen breath after eating garlic.

The leaves are most well known as the dried herb used on pizza toppings. The leavesaromatic have a tart, lemony flavor.

Oregano In wherefolklore,Germanplaces thyme grows wild are said to be blessed by fairies.

In ancient Egypt, people who died were mummified to preserve their bodies. After cleaning and embalming the body of a dead person, it was wrapped in linen bandages, along with herbs such as thyme and mint. The herbs’ fresh and fragrant scents were considered sacred.

These fragrant leaves were once given to knights before battle to inspire courage.

Herbs are plants that are used to flavor food, give perfume its smell, or provide medicinal qualities. Some have fragrant leaves or flowers that can be eaten fresh. Others are woody and added to cooking or used dried.

herbsHelpful

Using herbs dates back to ancient times. In ancient Greece, eating thyme was believed to cure poisoning, while rosemary was thought to help memory, and scholars used to put rosemary in their hair to help them during exams.

168 plantswithLiving

MUMMIFICATION

Flat-leafparsley

Spicy leaves taste like licorice and are used in Asian cooking. Mint Dill leaves Rosemary Sage Thai basil Dill

The hollow, tubular stems taste like onion—and the flowers do, too!

Modern science has proven some of the qualities of herbs—mint oil is known to kill mosquito larvae, for example. Other ideas are based on superstition, such as the medieval practice of drinking dill tea to repel a witch’s curse.

Chives

These leaves are used in toothpaste and sweets. The leaves are used for flavoring food.

In the past, these hairy,leavesgray-green were used to ward off evil.

Needlelike rosemary leaves grow on woody plants that can reach up to 7 ft (2 m) tall. These featherydelicate,leaves are often eaten with seafood. Dill seeds are used as a spice.

In the Middle Ages, herb gardens were common in European monasteries: monks grew sage as a remedy and also to clean their teeth. The plant’s scientific name, Salvia, comes from the Latin for “I am well.” Oregano is also healing. In Chinese medicine, it is used to help digestive problems.

herbsHelpful

Plants provide many of the materials we use every day. From tree trunks we harvest timber to build houses, wood to turn into paper, and resins to make varnish. Dyes can be made from berries and leaves, and textiles from plant fibers.

Fruit ❯ The large, smooth fruits of the coconut palm contain a seed known as the coconut. It has a hard, hairy shell and edible white flesh.

170 plantswithLiving productsPlant

Oil is extracted from the white flesh for use in cooking.

Some plants have many uses. In Malaysia, for example, the coconut palm is called the “tree of a thousand uses” because almost every part of this tree is useful.

Utensils, such as this cup, can be carved from coconut shells.

Trunk ❯ Coconut palms can grow up to 98 1 ⁄2 ft (30 m) tall. Their slender, flexible trunks, which have a ringed pattern, allow them to bend rather than break in strong winds.

Musical instruments, such as this Hawaiian pahu drum, are made from coconut timber.

Ropes can be made from coir, the fibers of the coconut husk. Logs of coconut timber are often used in construction because they do not decay easily. Coconut water, the liquid found inside the immature seed, is a delicious drink that is rich in nutrients.

Cotton White fibers surround the seeds of the cotton plant. In the wild, these fibers drift off in the wind, carrying the seeds to new places to grow. The fibers can be removed from the seeds and spun into threads to make textiles. Hemp This was one of the first plants to be used for clothing. The long fibers that make up the stem of the plant are used to make threads that can be woven into fabrics or twisted into string. Cork oak The waterproof outer bark of the cork oak tree is used to make stoppers for bottles, floor tiles, and many other aisgrowsobjects.householdThebarkslowlyandharvestedoncedecade.

Layer of bark has removed.been

Brooms are made from the stiff, dried midribs of coconut leaves. A male flower opens, sheds pollen, and falls off within a day.

Baskets can be made by weaving together the leaflets of coconut leaves. Coconut leaves can grow up to 6 ft (1.8 m) wide.

Rubber The milky sap of the rubber tree is harvested by cutting a line into its trunk and collecting the liquid that drips out. When set, rubber is an materialelasticused to make gloves, shoe soles, and tires. Leaf ❯ Mature coconut palms have around 35 leaves, each of which grows from a single bud at the top of the tree. Coconut leaves can grow up to 19 3 ⁄4 ft (6 m) in length.

Flower ❯ Coconut flower stalks contain spikes growing from a fleshy stem. Male flowers grow at the tops of the spikes, while female ones grow at their base. Both types of flowers produce nectar to attract insects. Sugar is made from the sweet sap in the stalks of the flower buds.

palmCoconut

Other plants and their stopperCorkStringThreadproductsTire

SHRINKING FOREST Mist rises in the hot air above a mountain rain forest known as the Leuser Ecosystem, on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. Dense with trees pushing up through the rain forest layers, the tallest rise 150–200 ft (45–60 m) to emerge above the canopy. This unique habitat is the last place where Sumatran orangutans, tigers, elephants, and rhinoceroses coexist in the wild.

Tropical rain forests cover around 6 percent of the world’s land, yet produce 40 percent of all oxygen and are often called the lungs of the Earth. The Leuser Ecosystem covers around 10,100 sq miles (26,300 sq km), about the size of Massachusetts. However, rain forest cover in Indonesia is rapidly decreasing to make room for palm oil plantations, hydroelectric dams, and farming. Increase in demand for lumber and wood pulp for paper has led to a rise in illegal logging. Human activity is putting many of the species of plants and animals in the region, which are not found anywhere else in the world, at risk of extinction. It also threatens the health of the whole planet.

Cucumber Henna Theoilyellow-gold is, in fact, a liquid wax made from seeds. Perfume Waxy flowersyellow have an exotic fragrance. Cucumber extract has soothing properties and is used widely in skin care products. This scented paste is made from usedsandalwoodpowderedandisasaskincleanser. Henna leaves are crushed before they can be used as hair dye or to decorate hands and feet for special occasions.

Jojoba Handwithdecoratedhenna

For thousands of years, people have used plant products to make themselves look and smell good. Floral fragrances and plant-based potions are still big business today, with many people preferring to use natural products rather than artificial ones.

Many different parts of plants are used to make beauty products. Ylang-ylang and lavender flowers each contain scents that can be distilled for use in perfumes. It is extracted by steaming. Sandalwood is just that—the aromatic, oily inner wood of a tree, which has

174 beautyNatural

Sandalwood Ylang-ylang

Dried

The sap inside the thick spiky leaves of the aloe vera plant is not only a soothing gel for burns but also has moisturizing properties. Cleopatra, the queen of ancient Egypt, attributed her great beauty to her use of aloe vera!

EucalyptusEucalyptus bath bombs Bath bombs infused with eucalyptus oil nourish hair and soothe the skin.

Aloe vera

Clear leaf sap is added to many skin care products for its soothing properties. This thick, fleshy leaf has a gel-like sap inside. Cocoa butter, made from the crushed insides of cocoa beans, is melted to make body creams. Fatty seeds are used to make shea butter, a moisturizer.popular Dried flowers are used to extract oil. beanscocoa Nut butter

Goats climb argan trees to eat the fruit and disperse the seeds in droppings.their Lavender

Argan Shea

175

Cocoa natural antiseptic and healing qualities. While the seeds of the shea nut, kernels of the argan fruit, and cocoa beans must all be roasted in order to release their rich oils, the seeds of the jojoba plant can simply be crushed. It is the leaves of the henna plant that, when dried and mashed to a paste, release a strong orange-brown dye.

The fragrant oil has soothing, healing qualities. Oil extracted from the seed nourishes skin, hair, and nails. Body scrub mixed with argan oil Inside an aloe vera leaf

This wildflower from Bhutan has distinctive yellow or amber anthers. These huge flowers can grow up to 8 in (20 cm) across. This colorful flower, also known as the flame lily, belongs to a plant that is protected in Zimbabwe. The blue of this national flower is used on Estonia’s flag to represent the country’s sea, sky, and lakes.

This 100-yen coin shows cherry blossoms that are celebrated in Japan each year in the spring festival hanami The maple leaf associated with Canada symbolizes unity, peace, and tolerance. The coffeearabicaplant inoriginatesEthiopia.

Plants of the world

Himalayan bluepoppy Bhutan Golden wattle Australia Maple Canada Cherry blossomJapan

176 plantswithLiving

Cattleya orchidB razil Cornf lower Jasmine Pakistan Estonia This is a wreath of Pakistan’s national flower, the sweet-smelling jasmine.

Some countries choose a beautiful local flower to represent their nation, such as the showy cattleya orchids of Brazil and the glory lily of Zimbabwe. Australia observes Wattle Day on September 1 to celebrate the golden wattle that grows Countries around the world often have a special connection to particular plants, rare or common. Many use flowers or trees as national symbols, often because these plants are culturally or spiritually important to the people living there.

Glorylily Zimbabwe Australian postage stamps have featured its national flower—the fluffy golden wattle. Coffee plant Ethiopia

This flower is also known as mugunghwa, which means “eternal blossom that never fades.”

RoseofShar on SouthKorea

bellflowerChilean Chile Tea China The lotus is the sacred symbol of India, and represents purity and grace. Rose England

Theflowersbell-shaped of this Chilean vine bloom between March and May.

Portugal,In lavender was believed to ward off evil spirits. IrisFrance

177 worldtheofPlants

The rose was a symbol of royalty in England and later became the national flower. According to legend, tea was first made from tea leaves in China in 2737 bce

across southern Australia as a sign of spring. The national flower of Bhutan, the Himalayan blue poppy, is so rare that it was once believed to be a myth and is called the “blue yeti.” The national tree of Canada, the syrup-producing maple tree, is found in each of its provinces, and its leaf features on the Canadian flag. The country that comes to mind when you say “tea” is China, the first to brew the hot drink from the plant’s leaves— and the world’s biggest producer today. In India, the national flower is the lotus. Hindu gods are often shown standing on this sacred flower.

Purple lavender flowers grow on spikes and appear across Portugal in the summer. Thecentercone-shaped holds the growing seeds. Lotus India

This flower inspired the fleur-de-lis symbol, used by the kings of France.

Lavender gutroPal

The world’s oldest botanical garden, the Orto Botanico di Padova, is built. The garden was used to grow medicinal plants and teach students about them.

Although people have always relied on plants, the science of plants—known as botany—has been studied for only around 2,500 years. Early scientists described the medicinal properties of plants, while later researchers investigated them to learn how they survive and thrive.

1600s Hydroponics, a method of growing plants in a nutrientfilled liquid rather than in the soil, is first described in the 1600s. This technique can produce more food in the same space and is a popular method of growing plants today.

Arabian scientist Ibn al-Baytār writes the Compendium on Simple Medicaments and Foods, featuring the names of 1,400 plants, foods, drugs, and their uses.

500describingbotanicalwritestheirtoAristotle,GreekaTheophrastus,studentofthephilosopheristhefirststudyplantsforownsake.Hethefirstbooks,aroundplants.

The garden exists today in its original location, in Padua, Italy.

Ibn inwritersmostwasal-Baytāroneoftheinfluentialonbotanymedievaltimes.

Greek botanist Pedanius Dioscorides writes De Materia Medica, a book on medicinal plants, which is used for the next 1,500 years. The plant Cordia sebestena is named after German botanist Valerius Cordus. He describes plant features and medicinal properties for the first time in his book Historia Plantarum, published in 1561. 1561 1545 60 ce

plantswithLiving Plant science

350 bce 1200s

Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus publishes Species Plantarum, which establishes the scientific naming system for plant organisms. American scientist Barbara McClintock is awarded the Nobel Prize in 1983 for her research into the inheritance of corn (maize) traits and how this is controlled. This work has led to other important discoveries in the field of genetics.

English naturalist Gilbert White describes the time of year that different plants bloom. Today, scientists use this information to study how climate change is affecting flowering times.

1950s 2008

American scientist Norman Borlaug develops a disease-resistant, dwarf wheat variety, which helps feed billions. Before the 1950s, tall wheat plants often blew over before the top-heavy crops could be harvested.

The Svalbard Global Seed Bank is built in Norway in 2008. This building stores seeds from around the world in case they are needed in the future.

1838

The book contains data on the 5,940 plants known at the time. plasticsMostwill not break down for thousands of years, but plant-based “bioplastics” have been developed that will break down into compost. Plant cell Every kernel on one ear of corn is unique and can look different from one another.

1753 1983 1800s 1789

German botanist Matthias Jakob Schleiden publishes Contributions to Phytogenesis, in which he argues that all plants are made of tiny units called cells.

Austrian monk and scientist Gregor Mendel uses pea plants to explore how plants inherit their characteristics. Like humans, a plant gets half of its characteristics from the female plant and half from the male plant.

SPACE GARDEN

Over millions of years of evolution, plants have become perfectly adapted for life on Earth. They are most certainly not adapted to growing in space, yet that is exactly what the plants shown here are doing. As part of an experiment on the International Space Station (ISS), its crew members are growing fresh vegetables in a “space garden” to try to improve their diet.

Plants are sensitive to their surroundings. Their roots grow toward sources of water, and their stems grow toward the light. They also react to gravity, growing up and away from its downward pull. In space, however, these plants are growing in zero gravity, with their roots held down by woven mats.

The attraction of the artificial lights above them makes them grow upright, like plants on Earth. They are given water containing vital nutrients, and the ISS crew breathes out the carbon dioxide the plants use to make the sugar they need to grow. In this process, the plants give off oxygen, which improves the air quality within the space station, while the sugar is turned into plant tissue that the crew can eat.

Aerial root A root that grows from the stem of a plant above the surface of the ground. Algae Plantlike, mostly waterdwelling, organisms such as seaweed, which contain the green pigment chlorophyll. Anther The part of the flower’s stamen that produces pollen. Bark The tough outer layer of the roots, trunk, and branches of woody plants such as trees and shrubs. Biofuel A renewable fuel produced from plant matter, algae, or animal waste. Bonsai A tree or shrub grown in a pot and kept in miniature form by special pruning. Bonsai is also the name given to this type of pruning. Bract A specialized type of leaf. Bracts, sometimes brightly colored, help protect buds and flowers on some plants and can also serve to attract pollinators. Bulb Underground fleshy leaves that store food for a plant. Chlorophyll A green pigment. Plants use chlorophyllthein their cells to harvest the energy in sunlight. Compound leaf A leaf that is divided into two or more leaflets. Conifer An evergreen tree or shrub that has needlelike leaves. All conifers bear cones. Corm A swollen, undergroundbulblikestem.

Germination

Buttress root A root that grows out from the trunk of a tree, giving it extra support. Canopy An almost continuous layer of branches and leaves formed high above the ground by treetops.

182 Glossary Glossary

Cotyledon The first food-storing leaf, or pair of leaves, formed inside a seed. Deciduous Describes a plant that sheds its leaves each year at the end of a growing season. Dicot A flowering plant that produces two seed leaves (cotyledons) when it first starts to grow. Dormant In an inactive state. Many plants become dormant in the winter or in times of drought, remaining alive but shutting down to save energy. Drupe A fleshy fruit, such as a plum or cherry, containing a single hard seed or stone. Epiphyte A plant that grows on another plant for support without taking nutrients from it. Evergreen A plant that keeps its leaves throughout the year. Fertilization The combination of a male cell from pollen and a female egg, which goes on to produce a young plant known as an embryo. Floret A small flower, usually one of many making up the head of a flower such as a daisy. Frond A long leaf that usually consists of smaller leaflets. They are seen in plants such as ferns and palms. Fungus thanrelatedareandincludingMicroorganismsmushroomstoadstools.Fungimorecloselytoanimalstoplants.

The process in which a seed starts to sprout and grow into a plant. Harvest The process of cutting and gathering crops from the field when ripe. Host plant A plant that is used by another for support and/or nutrients.

Tepal A flap around flowers that functions as both a sepal and a petal.

Tuber A thick underground stem or root that some plants use for storing nutrients. Vine A plant that climbs or trails along the ground, supporting its stem with tendrils or by twining itself around a supporting object.

183 Glossary

A group of flowers on a single stem. Kernel A grain or the inner part of a fruit, stone, or nut.

Nectar The sugary liquid produced by plants to attract pollinating animals. Node A point on a stem from which leaves, shoots, branches, or flowers can grow. Nutrients Minerals used by a plant to fuel its growth. plantParasitic A plant that lives on another and takes nutrients from it. Petals The brightly colored parts of a flower that attract pollinating insects and birds to a plant.

Setting seed The process in which a plant starts producing seeds after its flowers have been pollinated. Spore A tiny reproductive structure found in nonflowering plants such as ferns.

Lateral root A root that extends sideways from a main root to anchor a plant more firmly in the soil. Leaflet One of the smaller leaflike parts of a compound leaf growing from the leaf stalk.

Stamen The male part of a flower that includes the pollen-producing anther. Stigma The female part of a flower. Succulent A plant that stores water in thickened, fleshy leaves or stems. Succulents include cacti.

Taproot A thick, central root that grows straight downward. Tendril A threadlike, twining stalk that vine plants use to attach themselves to a supporting object.

Photosynthesis

Inflorescence

Sap The juices in plant cells. Sepal A small, leaflike flap, usually green, that surrounds and protects the petals of a flower.

Lenticel One of the tiny pores on a plant stem that helps in the exchange of gases between the plant and its environment. Lichen An organism made up of a fungus and an alga, working together. Monocot A flowering plant that produces just one seed leaf (cotyledon) when it starts to grow.

The process by which a green plant uses the energy in sunlight to create food for itself from water in the soil and carbon dioxide in the air. Plant A living organism, from a moss to a tree, that produces its own food by photosynthesis. Pneumatophore A straight aerial root that extends upward through swampy soil, enabling a plant to exchange gases, or “breathe.” Pollen The tiny powdery grains that contain the male reproductive cells, which combine with the female reproductive cells of a plant to make seeds. Pollination The transfer of pollen grains from a male flower, or part of a flower, to the female parts of a flower, to fertilize the eggs so seeds can develop. Pollinator An animal, such as a bee, moth, or bird, that makes the fertilization of plants possible by moving pollen from flower to flower. Rhizome An underground stem that grows horizontally, putting out shoots and roots as it spreads. Root hair A microscopic hairlike growth that extends from a root and increases the amount of water and nutrients that a plant can take in.

indexPlant Plant index AcaiA berry Euterpe oleracea 142 Acorn Quercus robur 25, 150 Adzuki bean Vigna angularis 154, 165 African moringa Moringa stenopetala 95 Alder Alnus 25 Allspice Pimenta dioica 166 Almond Prunus dulcis 150 Aloe vera Aloe vera 174–175 Alpine pink Dianthus alpinus 104 Alpine spotted orchid Dactylorhiza majalis 104 Amaryllis Hippeastrum 80 Amazonian water lily Victoria amazonica 32–33 American beech Fagus grandifolia 112 American eelgrass Vallisneria americana 84–85 American pearl laceleaf Anthurium scandens 15 American sycamore Platanus occidentalis 113 Angel wings Caladium bicolor 7, 36 Ant fern Lecanopteris 40, 53 Antarctic hair grass Deschampsia antarctica 128 Apple Malus 30–31, 117, 135 In this book, plants are called by their “common names”—the names used in everyday life by ordinary people, and which can vary from country to country. However, when scientists around the world talk about a plant, to avoid confusion, they use its scientific name. This is based on an internationally recognized naming system and is in Latin. A plant’s scientific name is made up of two parts: the first is the genus, or group, of plants it comes from, and the second is the name of the specific species. Apricot Prunus armeniaca 143 Argan Argania spinosa 175 Arrowhead Sagittaria 136 Artichoke Cynara scolymus 165 Arugula Eruca sativa 152 Arum lily Zantedeschia aethiopica 67 Asian bleeding heart Lamprocapnos spectabilis 70 Asparagus Asparagus officinalis 134–135, 160 Atlas cedar Cedrus atlantica 58, 61 Australian Christmas tree Nuytsia floribunda 102–103 Austrian pine Pinus nigra 6, 56–57 Avocado Persea americana 22 BambooB Bambusa vulgaris 27, 161 Banana Musa 68, 134 Banks’ rose Rosa banksiae 74 Barley Hordeum vulgare 22, 131 Barrel cactus Echinocactus grusonii 91, 92 Baseball plant Euphorbia obesa 95 Bat-faced cuphea Cuphea llavea 70 Bean Phaseolus vulgaris 21 Bee orchid Ophrys apifera 70–71 Beech Fagus 26 109 Beet Beta vulgaris 22, 136 Begonia Begonia hybrid 37 Belladonna Atropa belladonna 100 Bilberry cactus Myrtillocactus geometrizans 92 Bird-of-paradise plant Strelitzia reginae 66–67 Bird’s nest fern Asplenium nidus 118 Bishop’s cap cactus Astrophytum myriostigma 93 Bitter melon Momordica charantia 148–149 Black currant Ribes nigrum 138 Black pepper Piper nigrum 167 Black-eyed peas Vigna unguiculata 154 Blackberry Rubus fruticosus 24, 138 Blackthorn Prunus spinosa 117 Bladderwort Utricularia 99 Blanket flower Gaillardia 76 Blood orange Citrus sinensis 144 Blue agave Agave tequilana 40 Blue fescue Festuca glauca 128 Blue hubbard squash Cucurbita maxima 157 Blue spruce Picea pungens 59 Blueberry Vaccinium cyanococcus 139 Bok choy Brassica rapa var. chinensis 153 Borlotti beans Phaseolus vulgaris 155 Bougainvillea Bougainvillea 106 Bracken Pteridium aquilinum 53 Bradford pear Pyrus calleryana 82 Brazil nut Bertholletia excelsa 151 Brazillian waterweed Egeria densa 85 Bristlecone pine Pinus 58 Broadleaf stonecrop Sedum spathulifolium 104 Broom forkmoss Dicarnum scoparium 122 Brussels sprouts Brassica oleracea 152 Bryum moss Bryum capillare 46–47 Buddha’s hand Citrus medica var. sarcodactylis 144–145 Buddleia Buddleja davidii 69 Bulbophyllum Bulbophyllum 78 Burdock Arctium lappa 14–15, 24 Butter and eggs Triphysaria eriantha 103 Butterfly agave Agave potatorum 36–37 Butternut squash Cucurbita moschata 157 Butterwort Pinguicula cyclosecta 99 CabbageC Brassica oleracea var. capitata 134 Cactus mistletoe Tristeryx aphyllus 102 Calypso orchid Calypso bulbosa 122 Camel thorn Acacia erioloba 40, 94 Candelabra primrose Primula bulleyana 87 Cardoon Cynara cardunculus 160 Carrion plant Stapelia gigantea 82 Carrot Daucus carota 134, 136–137 Carrot fern Onychium japonicum 53 Cashew Anacardium occidentale 151 Cassava Manihot esculenta 137 Castor oil plant Ricinus communis 101, Cattail Typha latifolia 86 Cattleya orchid Cattleya 176 Cattleya purpurata Cattleya purpurata var. coerulea 79 Celeriac Apium graveolens var. rapaceum 160 Century plant Agave americana 94 Charentais melon Cucumis melo var. cantalupensis 149 Cherry Prunus avium 142 Cherry blossom Prunus serrulata 72–73, 176 Chickpea Cicer arietinum 154 Chicory Cichorium intybus 77 Chikoo Manilkara zapota 147 Chile pepper Capsicum annuum 166 Chilean bellflower Lapageria rosea 177 Chinese bayberry Myrica rubra 139 Chinese elm Ulmus parvifolia 125 Chinese fringetree Chionanthus retusus 116–117 Chinese juniper Juniperus chinensis 125 Chinese redbud Cercis chinensis 116 Chinese rose Rosa chinensis 11, 74–75 Chives Allium schoenoprasum 169 Christmas cactus Schlumbergera tr uncata 93 Cinnamon Cinnamomum 167 Citron Citrus medica 145 Clematis Clematis 107 Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus 138 Clumping bamboo Fargesia murieliae 128 Coast redwood Sequoia sempervirens 112, 114–115 Cobra plant Darlingtonia californica 98 Cobweb house-leek Sempervivum arachnoideum 104–105 Coco de mer Lodoicea maldivica 23 Cocoa Theobroma cacao 175 Coconut palm Cocos nucifera 11, 25, 111, 150, 170–171 Coffee Coffea 22, 176 Common eelgrass Zostera marina 85 Common daisy Bellis perennis 77 Common fig Ficus carica 111, 135 Common haircap Polytrichum commune 49 Common juniper Juniperus communis 60 Common kettlewort Blasia pusilla 48 Common liverwort Marchantia polymorpha 10, 49 Common maidenhair fern Adiantum aethiopicum 53

185 Common milkweed Asclepias syriaca 41 Common snowberry Symphoricarpos albus 87 Common tamarisk moss Thuidium tamariscinum 48 Coneflower Echinacea 76 Coriander Coriandrum sativum 22, 168 Cork oak Quercus suber 171 Corkscrew hazel Corylus avellana ‘Contorta’ 16–17 Corn Zea mays 21, 23, 131, 164 Cornflower Centaurea cyanus 6, 176 Corpse lily Rafflesia arnoldii 103 Cotton Gossypium hirsutum 171 Coulter pine Pinus coulteri 60 Crab apple Malus sylvestris 124 Crack willow Salix fragilis 113 Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon 138 Crenshaw melon Cucumis melo 148 Crimson glory Rosa ‘Crimson Glory’ 75 Crookneck squash Cucurbita moschata 156 Crowfoot grass Dactyloctenium aegyptium 128 Crown imperial Fritillaria imperialis 82 Cucamelon Melothria scabra 148 Cucumber Cucumis sativus 12–13, 157, 174 Cuipo Cavanillesia platanifolia 25 Cumin Cuminum cyminum 166 Curly parsley Petroselinum crispum 168 Cushaw pumpkin Cucurbita argyrosperma 156 Cycad Cycas revoluta 57 DaffodilD Narcissus pseudonarcissus 80 Dahlia Dahlia 36–37 Daikon Raphanus sativus 137 Damson Prunus domestica var. insititia 143 Dancing ladies orchid Oncidium 71, 119 Dandelion Taraxacum officinale 24–25, 32, 136 Darth Vader plant Aristolochia salvadorensis 70 Date Phoenix dactylifera 143 Dead horse arum Helicodiceros muscivorus 83 Deodar cedar Cedrus deodara 58 Dill Anethum graveolens ‘Mariska’ 169 Dodder Cuscuta 102 Dog rose Rosa canina 74 Dragon arum Dracunculus vulgaris 82 Dragon fruit Hylocereus undatus 147 Dragon’s blood tree Dracaena cinnabari 110–111 Durian Durio zibethinus 82–83, 147 Durum wheat Triticum turgidum var. durum 131 Dwarf iris Iris danfordiae 81 Dwarf pomegranate Punica granatum var. nana 125 EcheveriaE–GEcheveria 94 Elderberry Sambucus nigra 110 Elephant grass Ormiscanthus giganteus 129 Elephant’s ear Alocasia x amazonica 33 Endive Cichorium endivia 153 English ivy Hedera helix 16, 32, 107 English oak Quercus robur 33, 111, 113 English walnut Juglans regia 150 Epicattleya Rene Marques Epicattleya ‘Rene Marques’ 78 Eucalyptus Eucalyptus 33, 68, 111, 175 European holly Ilex aquifolium 111 European larch Larix decidua 60 European silver fir Abies alba 59 Everlasting pea Lathyrus latifolia 106 Eyebright Euphrasia rostkoviana 103 False saguaro cactus Pachycereus pringlei 93 Fanwort Cabomba aquatica 84 Fava beans Vicia faba 154 Fawn lily Erythronium revolutum 123 Fennel Foeniculum vulgare 161 Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum 167 Figaro dahlia Dahlia hybrida 10 Fir clubmoss Huperzia selago 49 Fissidens moss Fissidens fontanus 118 Flame vine Pyrostegia venusta 107 Flamingo lily Anthurium 36 Flat-leaf parsley Petroselinum crispum 168 Flowering rush Butomus umbellatus 84 Forest star moss Mnium hornum 48 Forget-me-not Myosotis alpestris 104 Four-leaved pink sorrel Oxalis tetraphylla 35 Foxglove Digitalis purpurea 66 Frangipani Plumeria rubra 66 Gac Momordica cochinchinensis 148 Garlic Allium sativum 161 Geranium Pelargonium 36 Ghost gum Corymbia aparrerinja 113 Giant onion Allium giganteum 81 Giant rhubarb Gunnera manicata 86 Ginger Zingiber officinale 167 Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba 33, 57, 83, 110 Glittering wood moss Hylocomium splendens 48 Globe thistle Echinops ritro 76 Glory lily Gloriosa superba 176–177 Goji berry Lycium barbarum 138 Golden wattle Acacia pycnantha 176 Gorse Ulex 41 Gourd Lagenaria siceraria 157 Grape Vitis vinifera 43, 139, 140–141 Grapefruit Citrus paradisi 145 Green almond Prunus dulcis 142–143 Green cardamom Elettaria cardamomum 167 Green pumpkin Cucurbita pepo 156 Guava Psidium guajava 147 Guelder rose Viburnum opulus 67 Hair-awnH–Kmuhly grass Muhlenbergia capillaris 129 Hairy-leafed apitong Dipterocarpaceae 22 Haleakala silversword Argyroxiphium sandwicense var. macrocephalum 105 Hares-tail grass Lagurus ovatus 129 Hart’s tongue fern Asplenium scolopendrium 52 Heart leaf fern Hemionitis arifolia 53 Heart of palm Bactris gasipaes 160 Helosis Helosis cayennensis 102 Hemlock Conium maculatum 100 Hemp Cannabis sativa 171 Henna Lawsonia inermis 174 Himalayan blue poppy Meconopsis grandis 176 Himalayan may apple Podophyllum hexandrum 105 Holly Ilex 32, 37 Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos 34–35 Honeydew melon Cucumis melo var. ‘Honey Dew’ 149 Horned melon Cucumis metuliferus 149 Hornwort Ceratophyllum demersum 84 Horse chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum 23, 35 Hosta Hosta fortunei var. hyacinthina 122 Hot lips Psychotria elata 71 Hubbard squash Cucurbita maxima 157 Hyacinth Hyacinthus 81 Iceberg rose Rosa ‘Schneewittchen’ 75 Indian pipe Monotropa uniflora 70 Iris Iris 26, 177 Ivy broomrape Orobanche hederae 102 Jacaranda Jacaranda mimosifolia 117 Jack-in-the-pulpit Arisaema triphyllum 123 Jackal food Hydnora africana 82 Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus 146 Jamaican tangelo Citrus reticulata x Citrus paradisi 145 Japanese blood grass Imperata cylindrica 129 Japanese holly fern Cyrtomium falcatum 52 Japanese maple Acer palmatum 125 Japanese painted fern Athyrium niponicum pictum ‘Metallicum’ 53 Japanese winterberry Ilex serrata 124 Japanese wisteria Wisteria floribunda 124 Jasmine Jasminum officinale 176 Javan cucumber Alsomitra macrocarpa 22–23 Jojoba Simmondsia chinensis 174 Joshua tree Yucca brevifolia 111 Jujube Ziziphus jujuba 142 Juliet rose Rosa ‘Sweet Juliet’ 75 Kaffir lime Citrus hystrix 145 Kajari melon Cucumis melo 148 Kale Brassica oleracea 153 Kauri Agathis australis 60 Key lime Citrus aurantifolia 145 Kiaat Pterocarpus angolensis 22 King protea Protea cynaroides 67 Kiwi Actinidia deliciosa 134 Kohlrabi Brassica oleracea 161 Korean fir Abies koreana 61 Korean melon Cucumis melo var. makuwa 149 Kumquat Citrus japonica 145 L–MLaburnumLaburnum anagyroides 116–117 Lady’s slipper orchid Cypripedioideae 122 Lamb’s ear Stachys byzantina 40 Large duck orchid Caleana major 71 indexPlant

186 Large-flowered trillium Trillium grandiflorum 123 Lavender Lavandula angustifolia 175, 177 Lebanon cedar Cedrus libani 59 Leek Allium ampeloprasum 80–81, 160 Lemon Citrus limon 145 Lentil Lens culinaris 23, 154 Lettuce Lactuca sativa 152 Lily of the valley Convallaria majalis 100 Lima bean Phaseolus lunatus 154–155 Lingonberry Vaccinium vitis-idaea 138 Little bluestem Schizachyrium scoparium 10 Living stone Lithops helmutii 95 Llareta Azorella compacta 94 Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta 11, 60 Long strap fern Campyloneurum phyllitidis 119 Long-petaled lewisia Lewisia longipetala 105 Lotus Nelumbo nucifera 24, 136, 177 Love in a puff Cardiospermum halicacabum 22 Luffa Luffa acutangula 157 Lupine Lupinus 11, 34 Lychee Litchi chinensis 147 Macadamia Macadamia integrifolia 150 Magnolia Magnolia 117 Male fern Dryopteris filix-mas 50–51, 52 Manchineel Hippomane mancinella 101 Manchurian striped maple Acer tegmentosum 112 Mango Mangifera indica 142 Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana 147 Maple Acer 31, 176 Marsh clubmoss Lycopodiella inundata 48 Marsh marigold Caltha palustris 69, 86 Maui-island aster Hesperomannia arbuscula 76 Meadow foxtail Alopecurus pratensis 126 Meadow horsetail Equisetum pretense 48–49 Mediterranean cypress Cupressus sempervirens 110 Mexican fire barrel Ferocactus pilosus 93 Milk thistle Silybum marianum 25 Mint Mentha 26, 169 Mistletoe Viscum album 102 Mock orange Philadelphus coronarius 116 Monk’s hood cactus Astrophytum ornatum 90–91 Monkey puzzle tree Araucaria araucana 60 Moth orchid Phalaenopsis 78 Mother of thousands Kalanchoe daigremontiana 26 Mountain buttercup Ranunculus montanus 105 Mulberry Morus 138 Mung beans Vigna radiata 155 Munstead wood Rosa ‘Munstead Wood’ 74 Musk rose Rosa moschata 75 Mustard Brassica 167 Mutisia Mutisia 77 NakedN–Oman orchid Orchis italica 70 Nasturtium Tropaeolum 32 Necklace orchid Pholidota imbricata 119 Nectarine Prunus persica 143 Neon broom cactus Arrojadoa penicillata 93 Nerine Nerine bowdenii 80 Nordmann fir Abies nordmanniana 111 Norway maple Acer platanoides 25, 108–109 Norway spruce Picea abies 61 Nun orchid Phaius tankervilleae 79 Nutmeg Myristica fragrans 167 Oat Avena sativa 130 Oca Oxalis tuberosa 137 Old man cactus Cephalocereus senilis 93 Old man of the Andes Oreocereus leucotrichus 11 Oleander Nerium oleander 101 Olive Olea europaea 142–143 Oncidium Oncidium croesus 78 Onion Allium cepa 160 Orange Citrus sinensis 144 Oregano Origanum vulgare 168 Organ pipe cactus Stenocereus thurberi 92 Oriental fountain grass Pennisetum orientale 129 Orthotrichum moss Orthotrichum anomalum 119 Ostrich fern Matteuccia struthiopteris 52–53 Outeniqua yellowwood Afrocarpus falcatus 60 Overnight scentsation Rosa ‘Overnight scentsation’ 60 PampasP–Rgrass Cortaderia selloana 129 Papaya Carica papaya 146 Parrot flower Impatiens psittacina 70 Parrot’s feather Myriophyllum aquaticum 85 Parsnip Pastinaca sativa 136 Passion flower Passiflora helleri 41 Passion fruit Passiflora edulis 146 Pattypan squash Cucurbita pepo 157 Pea Pisum sativum 155, 179 Peach Prunus persica 22, 142 Peanut Arachis hypogaea 151 Pear Pyrus communis 135 Pearl millet Pennisetum glaucum 131 Pecan Carya illinoinensis 151 Persian cornflower Centaurea dealbata 77 Persimmon Diospyros 112, 146 Petunia Petunia cultivars 37 Pincushion moss Leucobryum glaucum 123 Pine Pinus 113 Pine nut Pinus gerardiana 151 Pineapple Ananas comosus 146 Pineapple lily Eucomis bicolor 82 Pineapple zamia Macrozamia lucida 61 Pink quill Tillandsia cyanea 67 Pink wood sorrel Oxalis debilis 80 Pistachio Pistacia vera 150 Pitch pine Pinus rigida 61 Plum Prunus domestica 142 Pomegranate Punica granatum 22 Pomelo Citrus maxima 35, 144, 165 Pong pong Cerbera odollam 101 Poppy Papaver 22, 28–29, 67 Pot marigold Calendula officinalis 22 Potato Solanum tuberosum 137 Powdery strap airplant Catopsis berteroniana 98 Prayer plant Calathea 37 Prickly pear Opuntia 91, 92–93 Primrose Primula vulgaris 66 Prostrate speedwell Veronica prostrata 105 Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo 156, 158–159 Pur ple loosestrife Lythrum salicaria 87 Purple pussypaws Cistanthe umbellata 96–97 Queen of the Andes Puya raimondii 28 Queen of the Night Epiphyllum oxypetalum 91 Queen Victoria agave Agave victoria-reginae 95 Radicchio Cichorium intybus 152, 165 Radish Raphanus raphanistrum 137 Rainbow chard Beta vulgaris var. vulgaris 152–153 Rainbow eucalyptus Eucalyptus deglupta 112–113 Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum 146–147 Raspberry Rubus idaeus 138 Red cabbage Brassica oleracea 153 Red cross orchid Epidendrum radicans 78 Red currant Ribes rubrum 138 Red disa Disa uniflora 79 Red hot poker Kniphofia uvaria 67 Red powderpuff Calliandra haematocephala 66 Resurrection plant Selaginella lepidophylla 94 Rhubarb Rheum rhabarbarum 135, 160 Rice Oryza sativa 130–131, 132–133 Rosa Mundi Rosa officinalis ‘Versicolor’ 75 Rosary pea Abrus precatorius 100 Rose Rosa 37, 41 Rose Rosa hybrida 177 Rose of Sharon Hibiscus syriacus 176 Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis 169 Rough horsetail Equisetum hyemale 87 Royal poinciana Delonix regia 116 Rubber Hevea brasiliensis 171 Rubber tree Ficus elastica 18–19 Runner bean Phaseolus coccineus 154 Rutabaga Brassica napobrassica 137 Rye Secale cereale 131

187 Sphagnum Sphagnum 49 Spider plant Chlorophytum comosum 27–28 Spinach Spinacia oleracea 153 Spotted fritillary Fritillaria atropurpurea 105 Squill Hyacinthoides non-scripta 122 Staghorn fern Platycerium superbum 118–119 Stanhopea Stanhopea wardii 79 Star anise Illicium verum 167 Star fruit Averrhoa carambola 146 Star jasmine Trachelospermum jasminoides 106 Star moss Tortula ruralis 10 Stiff clubmoss Lycopodium annotinum 10 Stifftia Stifftia chrysantha 76 Stinging nettle Urtica dioica 41 Stinking iris Iris foetidissima 83 Stinking toe Hymenaea courbaril 34 Strangler fig Ficus religiosa 120-121 Strawberry Fragaria 21, 27, 134, 139 Sugar maple Acer saccharum 32, 110 Sugar pine Pinus lambertiana 59, 61 Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum 16, 130 Sun pitcher plant Heliamphora heterodoxa x minor 99 Sun rose Cistus x argenteus ‘Peggy Sammons’ 17 Sunblest rose Rosa ‘landora’ 74 Sundew Drosera capensis 99 Sunflower Helianthus 22, 38–39, 77 Swamp rose mallow Hibiscus moscheutos 86 Sweet chestnut Castanea sativa 151 Sweet pea Lathyrus odoratus 67 Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas 27 Sweet vernal grass Anthoxanthum odoratum 126–127 Swiss cheese plant Monstera deliciosa 32 Sword fern Nephrolepis exaltata 123 Tamarack larch Larix laricina 59 Tamarind Tamarindus indica 34 Taro Colocasia esculenta 137 Tea Camellia sinensis 40, 177 Teosinte Zea mays parviglumis 164 Tepary beans Phaseolus acutifolius 155 Tephrocactus Tephrocactus aoracanthus 93 Thai basil Ocimum basilicum 169 Thistle Cirsium 40 Thurber’s stemsucker Pilostyles thurberi 102 Thyme Thymus vulgaris 168 Tibetan cherry Prunus serrula 113 Tiger lily Lilium tigrinum 64–65 Tigger melon Cucumis melo 148 Tillandsia air plant Tillandsia 118 Titan arum Amorphophallus titanum 83 Tomato Solanum lycopersicum 135 Treasure flower Gazania rigens 76 Tromboncino Cucurbita moschata 157 Tropical pitcher plant Nepenthes x red leopard 98–99 Trumpet pitcher plant Sarracenia 99 Tulip Tulipa 36, 81 Turkish hazelnut Corylus colurna 150–151 Turmeric Curcuma longa 166–167 Turnip Brassica rapa subsp. rapa 136 Twisted moss Tortula ruralis 48 UmbrellaU–Vgrass Cyperus alternifolius 85 Valerian Valeriana officinalis 83 Vanda Vanda 79 Vanda orchid Vanda Gaud 11 Vanilla Vanilla 167 Velvet feather-moss Brachythecium velutinum 49 Venus flytrap Dionaea muscipula 98 Virginia creeper Parthenocissus quinquefolia 107 Virginia waterleaf Hydrophyllum virginianum 36 WasabiW–ZEutrema japonicum 167 Water chestnut Eleocharis dulcis 161 Water hawthorn Aponogeton distachyos 85 Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes 84 Water lettuce Pistia stratiotes 85 Water lily Nymphaea 84 Water spearmint Mentha cervina 87 Watercress Nasturtium officinale 153 Watermelon Citrullus lanatus 148 Waterwheel plant Aldrovanda vesiculosa 98 Wax plant Hoya 66 Welwitschia Welwitschia mirabilis 57 Wheat Triticum 33, 130 Whistling thorn acacia Vachellia drepanolobium 41 White baneberry Actaea pachypoda 100–101 White clover Trifolium repens 35 White egret flower Pecteilis radiata 71 White poplar Populus alba 113 White skunk cabbage Lysichiton camtschatcensis 87 White snakeroot Ageratina altissima 100 Whorl flower Ainsliaea 76 Wild desert gourd Citrullus colocynthis 95 Wild garlic Allium ursinum 122 Winged beans Psophocarpus tetragonolobus 154 Wisteria Wisteria 106 Wolfsbane Aconitum napellus 101 Wollemi pine Wollemia nobilis 60 Wood anemone Anemone nemorosa 123 Yew Taxus baccata 101 Ylang-ylang Cananga odorata 174 Yubari King melon Cucumis melo ‘Yubari King’ 149 Zululand cycad Encephalartos ferox 60 Zygopetalum Zygopetalum 78 SacredS–Tfir Abies religiosa 58 Saffron Crocus sativus 167 Sage Salvia officinalis ‘Purpurascens’ 168–169 Saguaro Carnegiea gigantea 69, 91, 92 Samphire Salicornia europaea 161 Sandalwood Santalum album 174 Santa Claus melon Cucumis melo ‘Santa Claus’ 149 Satsuki azalea Rhododendron indicum 124–125 Savoy cabbage Brassica oleracea var. sabauda 152 Scots pine Pinus sylvestris 124 Sensitive plant Mimosa pudica 34 Serpentine sugarbush Protea curvata 104 Sesame Sesamum indicum 166 Shea Vitellaria paradoxa 175 Siberian dwarf pine Pinus pumila 58 Silk floss Ceiba speciosa 112 Silver birch Betula pendula 33 Silver fern Cyathea dealbata 35 Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis 59 Slipper orchid Paphiopedilum 79 Sloe Prunus spinosa 143 Smooth hornwort Phaeoceros laevis 10 Snapdragon Antirrhinum majus 70 Snow pea Pisum sativum var. saccharatum 11, 155 Snowy woodrush Luzula nivea 127 Soft rush Juncus effusus 87 Soft shield fern Polystichum setiferum 52 Soft tree fern Dicksonia antarctica 11, 52 Sorghum Sorghum bicolor 130 Soybeans Glycine max 155 Spangle grass Chasmanthium latifolium 128–129 Spanish moss Tillandsia usneoides 118 indexPlant

Index Index A acorns 25, 150 aerial roots 15, 19 African moringa 95 agave 36, 40, 41, 94, 95 algae almond12142, 143, 150, 151 aloe vera 175 alpine pink 104, 105 alpines AmazonianAmaryllis104–10580,81water lily 32, 33 American sycamore 113 ancient plants 48–49 see also ferns; mosses Andes, South America 28 angel wing 36, 37 angiosperms 11 animalsdefenses against 40 for seed spreading 24, 25 grazing 43, 126 ant fern 40, 53 aphids 17 apple 30–31, 116, 117, 124, aquatic135plants 84–85 argan arrowhead175 plants 136 arum lily 67 asparagus 135, 160 Atacama Desert, Chile Australia96–97 Australian176Christmas tree 102, Austrian103pine 56 avocado 22 B bamboo 26, 27, 128, 129, barrelbarleybanana16113422,131cactus91, 92 baseball plant 95 bats beautybeans68–69154–155products 165, bee174–175orchid 70, 71 bees 65, 68, 71 beet bird-of-paradisebioplasticsBhutanbelladonnaBelize13688–89100176,177179 66, 67 birds 68–69 bird’s nest fern 119 blackthorn 116, 117 bladderwort 99 blades 30, 127 blossoms buttressbutterwortbutternutbutterfliesbutterburdockbulbsbudsBuddha’sBrusselsbroadleafbristleconebridgesBrazilBradfordbractsbougainvilleabotanybotanicalborlottiBorlaug,bonsaiblueblue116–11772–73,fescue128,129spruce59trees124–125Norman179bean155gardens178178–17910667pear82,8317618–19pine58stonecrop104,105sprout152,153hand144,14528,29,10880–81,160–16114–15,24,25andeggs10341,68,69,79squash15799roots15 C cabbage 134, 152, 153 cacti 11, 90–91, 92–93, 102 cactus mistletoe 102, camelCalifornia,103US114–115thorn40, 41, 94, 95 Canada 176, 177 candelabra primrose 87 canopy, rain forest 119 capsules 47 cardoon 160, 161 Caribbean Sea 88–89 carnivorous plants 98–99 carrion plant 82, 83 carrot 134, 136, 137 Cascade Range, California castorcassavacashew114–115151137oilplant 101 cattail 86, 87 cedars 58–59, 61 celeriac 160 century plant 94, 95 cereal plants 130–131 Charentais melon 148, 149 cherry tree 72–73, 113, 117, chestnut142 151 chickpea 154 chicory 77 Chile 96–97, 177 chile pepper 166, 167 China 177 China rose 11, 74 Chinese bayberry 138, 139 Chinese elm 125 Chinese juniper 125 Chinese redbud 116, 117 chlorophyll 12, 31, 43 Christmas cactus 93 citron 144, 145 citrus fruits 144–145 clematis 106, 107 climbing plants 16, 91, clothing106–107fibers 165 cloudberry 138, 139 clubmoss 47, 48, 49 coast redwood 112, 114–115 cobweb house-leek 104, 105 cocoa bean 175 coco de mer 22, 23 coconut palm 25, 111, 150, 151, 170–171 Compendium on Simple Medicaments and Food 178 compound leaves 34–35 cones 56–57, 58–59, 60–61 conifers 54–55, 109, 110, cones114–11556–57, 60–61 pine family 58–59 Contributions in Phytogenesis 179 corals Cordus,12Valerius 178 coriander 22, 23, 168 cork oak corkscrew171hazel 17 corms 136 corn 131, 164, 179 corpse lily 103 cosmetics 165, 174–175 cotton 171 crab apple 124 cranberry 138 creeping plants 16, 106–107 crimson glory rose 75 crops 128, 131, 136, 154, crown164–165imperial plant 82, 83 cucumber 13, 22, 148, 157, cuipo174 culinary25nut 150–151 cycada 57 cypress 110 D daffodil 80, 81 dahlia 36, 37 daikon 136, 137 daisies 10, 76–77 dancing ladies orchid 70, 71 dandelion 24, 25, 32, 136, date137142, 143 dead horse arum 83

Hyperion

tallest tree) 114–115 I Ibn al-Baytar 178 iceberg rose 75 India 18–19, 154, 177 indoors,(hydroponics)growing 149, 178 inflorescences 66 Inokashira Park, Japan insects72–7353, 68–69, 79, 82 International Space Station (ISS) 180–181 iris 26, 81, 83 J–K Jackal food plants 82, 83 jackfruit Jamaican146tangelo 145 Japan 72–73, 117, 125, Japanese176 painted fern 53 jasmine 106, 176 jojoba 174, 175 Juliet rose 75 juniper 60, 125 Kajari melon 148, 149 kale 153 kauri 60, kettlewort6148, 49 kiaat 22 king protea 67 kiwi fruit 134 kohlrabi 160, 161 Korean melon 149 kumquat 145 L laburnum 116 ladybugs 68, 69 Lanzarote, Spain 140–141 larch 58–59, 60–61 large duck orchid 71 large-flowered trillium 123 lateral roots 14, 15 lavender 174, 175, 177 leaflets 35 leaves 13, 14, 21, 30–31, as171defenses 41 grasses 127 shapes and sizes of 32–33, 34–35, 86 vegetables 134, 152 Lebanon cedar 58, 59 leek 81, 160 legume 11 lemon 145 lentil lettuce154152, 153

fungifungaltropicalstonesoftmelons144–145148–149fruits138–139fruits142–143fruits146–147diseases11312

fissidens moss 118 flakes 91 flame vine 107 flamingo lily 36 florets flowering38–39rushes 84, 85 flowers 12, 13, 28–29, 64–65, 80–81 cacti coconuts90 171 forms and shapes 66–67, 68, imitatinggrasses70–71126other flowers and plants see mimicry national flowers 176–177 scents 68, 69, 82–83 food storage 21, 80, 136, 160 forest plants 91, 109, rain122–123forest plants 15, 33, 93, 109, 119, 172–173 see also conifers fossil 51, fritillary,frangipani5366spotted 105 fronds 50, 52–53 fruits 13, 28, 116, 134–135, citrus170

Historia Plantarum 178 holly 36, 37, 111 holoparasites 103 honeydew melon 148, 149 honey locust 35 horned melon 149 hornwort 10, 47, 84, 85 horse chestnut 22, 23 horsetail 47, 49, 54, 87 Hubbard squash 157 hummingbirds 68, 69 hyacinth hydroponics81 149, 178 (world’s

G gac 148, 149 garlic 122, 123, 161 geranium germination36 20, 21, 22, 25, ginger28 166, 167 ginkgo 32, 33, 57, 83, 110, glory111lily 176 glucose 12 goji berry 138 golden wattle 176 gorse 41 gourd 148, 156, 157 grain grapevine130–131139, 140–141 grasses 10, 126–127, 128–129, 130–131 grassland plants 91, 127 groundnut 151 guava 146, gymnosperms14711, 46 H hairs, root 15 hart’s tongue fern 52, haustoria53 103 hazel heartheart150,17,151leaffern53ofpalm 160, 161 helosis 102, HimalayanHimalayanhighherbshennahemphemlockhemiparasites103102–103100171174,175168–169altitudeplants104–105bluepoppy176,177mayapple105

189 deciduous trees 59, 109, 110, defenses11140–41bark 112, 113 poison 40, 81, 95, 100–101, 143 spines 41, 91, 92, 95, 112 spots 37 thorns 40–41, 95, 106 De Materia Medica 178 desert plants 91, 92, 94–95, dicots97 11, 21 dill dinosaurs169 Dioscorides,54–55Pedanius 178 diseases 37, 112, 113 dodder 102, 103 dog rose 74, 75 durians 82, 83, 147 dwarf pomegranate 124, 125 dye 116, 170, 175 E echeveria 94 edible bulbs 81, 160–161 elderberry 110, 111 elephant grass 129 elephant’s ear 33 embryos 20, 21 English ivy 16, 32, 107 English oak 33, 111, 113 acorns 25, 150 English walnut 150, 151 ephemeral plants 96–97, eucalyptus123 110, 111, 113, European175 silver fir 59 evergreen trees 59, 109, everlasting110–111 pea 106 extinction 51, 79, 173 eyebright 103 F false saguaro cactus 92, 93 fanwort 84, 85 farming 132–133, 165 fava bean 154, 155 fennel 161 ferns 11, 46, 50–51, 52–53, 54–55, 123 living on other plants Fibonacci118–119sequence 39 fiddleheads 50 fig 111, 120–121, 135 fir 58–59, 60–61, 110–111

plant 98, 98–99 plantlets 27 plum pneumatophore117 roots 15 poisonous plants 40, 81, 95, 100–101, 143 pollen 60, 64, 78, 79 pollination 53, 56, 60, 61, 64 see also pussypawspurplepumpkinpulsesproteinsproducts,primrosepricklypricklespotatopoppypomelopomegranatepollinatorsreproduction64,66,68–69,70–71,78,79bats91,93birds60,66,101insects53,68–69,79,822235,14422,28–29,66,6713741pearcactus92,9366fromplants158–159,165,170–17142–43,150,154154–155148,156,157,158–159loosestrife8796–97 Q queen of the Andes 28 queen of the night 91 Queen Victoria agave 94, 95 R rachis 51 radial symmetry 39 radicchio 152, 153 rainbow chard 152, 153 rainbow eucalyptus 113 rain forest plants 15, 33, 93, 109, 119, 172–173 rambutan 146, 147 red hot poker 67 red powderpuff 66 redwood 112, 115 reproduction 13, 26–27 see also pollination resins resurrection113 plant 94 rhizomes 26, 51, 137 rhubarb 86, 87, 160, 161 rice 130, 131, 132–133 ricin 101 rings (tree) 109 riverbank plants 86–87 roots 13, 14–15, 19, 50, 90, epiphytes127 and parasites 103, 118–119, 121 first underwater20 84, 88–89 vegetables 134, 136 ropes 170 rose hips 74, 75 rose of Sharon 176 rosemary 168, 169 roses 11, 17, 74–75

28

170 mustard 167 Mutusia flower 77 N naked man orchid 70 national flowers 176–177 nectar 64, 65, 69, 98 nectarine 143 needles 58–59 nerine 80, 81 nitrogen nonflowering42–43plants 10, 46–47 see also cones; ferns; Nordmannmosses fir 110, 111 Norway maple 108–109 nuts 150–151 O oca 137 oils 75, 170 olive 142, 143 onion 81, 160 orange 144 orchids 11, 70–71, 78–79, alpine119 spotted 104, 105 cattleya 79, 176–177 oregano 168, 169 organ pipe cactus 92, 93 orthotrichum moss 118, 119 Orto Botanico di Padova 178 Outeniqua yellowwood 60 ovaries 64, 65 P palms 11, 143 coconut palm 25, 111, 150, 151, 170–171 pampas grass 129 papaya 146, 147 paper parasitic165plants 102–103 parrot flower 70, 71 parrot’s feather 85 parsnip 136 passion flower 41 passion fruit 146 patterned plants 36–37, pattypan38–39 squash 157 pea perennialpepperpecanpearpeanutpeach154–15522,142151135151167plants perfume 117, 168, 174 persimmon 146, 147 petals 29, 64, 78 petioles photosynthesis30 12, 31, 181 pineapple 146 pine nut 151 pines 58–59, 60–61, 113 pink quill 67 pinna pistachio50 150, 151 pitcher

190 Leuser Ecosystem 172–173 lewisia, long-petaled 105 lichens 12 life cycles, plants 28–29 lima bean 155 lime lingonberry145 138, 139 Linnaeus, Carl 179 liverworts 10, 47, 49 living bridges 18–19 living stone plant 95 llareta 94, 95 lodgepole pine 60, 61 long strap fern 119 lotus lumber177165, 170, 173 lupine 34 lychee lycopods14710 M magnolia 116, 117 male fern 50–51, 52 manchineel 101 Manchurian striped maple 112, mandarin113orange 144 mangroves 15, 88–89 maple 108–109, 110, 111, 176, leaves17732, 33 seeds 25 marigold 22, 23, 86, 87 materials, from plants 158–159, 165, 170–171 Maui island-aster 76, 77 McClintock, Barbara 179 meat-eating plants 98–99 medicinal plants 49, 75, 117, 137, 165, 166, 168, 178 Mediterranean cypress melon110 Mendel,148–149Gregor 179 midribs 31 milk thistle 25 milkweed, common 41 mimicryfordefense 41, 82–83 for pollination 69, 70–71, 78, 82–83 miniature trees (bonsai) 124–125mint26,mockmistletoe169102orange 116 monk’s hood cactus 90 monocots 11, 21 mosses 10, 46–47, 48–49, 118–119, 122, 123 mother of thousands 26, 27 moths mountain68 plants 104–105 mulberry musicalmummificationmulticolored138(variegated)plants36–37168instruments165,

Indexrubber 171 rubber fig 18–19 runner bean 154, 155 runners, stem 26 rush rutabaga127 136 S saffron 167 sage saguaro169cactus 92 sakura 73 samphire Santasandalwood161174Clausmelon 149 sap satsuki17 azalea 124 Scalbard Global Seed Bank scales179 56, 57 scents Schleiden,82–83Matthias Jakob science,179 of plants 178–179 seagrass 127 sedge seedless127plants 26–27 seedlings 28 seeds 20–21, 28, 64, 150, conifer164 57, 60 fruits softsoftsnowsnowberrysnapsloesitkasimplesilversilk“short-lived”sheasepalssensitivespreadingshapes134–13522–23of24–25plant34,3578nut175plants96–97floss112birch33leaves32–33spruce59143traps9887pea155fruits138–139rushes87 soil 42–43 sori soybean51 155 space, plants in 74, 180–181 Spanish moss 118, 119 Species Plantarum 179 spices 166–167 spider plant 27 spines 41, 91, 92, 95, 112 spores 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53 sporophyte 47 spruce 58–59, 60–61 squash 156–157 squill 122, 123 staghorn fern 118, 119 stalks, edible 160–161 stamens 64, 67 star fruit 146, 147 stems 13, 16–17, 26, 90, 92 climbers and creepers rhizomes106–107 26, 51, 137 vegetables 135, 160–161 stifftia 76, 77 stigmas 64 stilt roots 15 stipes stonestomata5130fruits 142–143 strangler fig 120–121 strawberry 26, 27, 134, 139 sugar 12, 31, 42, 171 sugarcane 16, 130, 131 sugar maple 110, 111 sugar pine 58, 59 Sumatra, sunflowersundewsunblest172–173Indonesiarose74,759922,23,38–39, 77 sun rose 17 sweet potato 26, 27 sweet vernal grass 126–127 Swiss cheese plant 32, 33 symmetrical patterns 38–39 T tamarack larch 59 tamarinds 34, 35 taproot 14 taro plant 136, 137 tea 40, 41, 137, 169, 177 tendrils 12, 107 teosinte 164 tepary bean plant 155 Thailand 71, Thurber’sthornsTheophrastus12117840–41,95,106stemsucker102,103 thyme Tibetan168cherry 113 tiger lily 65 tigger melon 148, 149 titan arum 83 treasure flower 76, 77 trees 19, 108–109, 110–111 bark blossoms112–11372–73, 116–117 bonsai trees 124–125 plants growing on 77, tropical118–119fruits 146–147 Tualatin Pumpkin Regatta, US 158–159 tubers 27, 137 tulip 36, 37, 81 turmeric 166 twining stems 107 V vanilla variegated167plants 36–37 vegetables 134–135, 136–137, 180–181 bulbs, stems, and stalks peasgreens160–161152–153andbeans 154–155 squashes 156–157 veins 30, 31, 32, 49 Venus flytraps 98 Vietnam 132–133 vines 106–107, 139, 148, 156 vineyards 140–141 Virginia creeper 106–107 Virginia waterleaf 37 vitamins 75, 134, 138, 144, volcanic156 ash 140–141 W water, coconut 170 water, for seed spreading 25 water hyacinth 84, 85 water lettuce 85 water lily 84, 85 watermelon 148, 149 water plants 84–85 water spearmint 87 water storage 80, 90, 91, waterweed94 85 waterwheel plant 98 welwitschia 57 wheat 130, 131 White, Gilbert 179 white baneberry 100, 101 white egret flower 70, 71 white poplar 113 white skunk cabbage 87 whorl flower 76, 77 wild berries 138 wild rose 74 wind, for seed spreading winged25 bean 154, 155 wisteria 106, 124 wolfsbane 100, 101 wood anemone 122, 123 Y–Z yew ylang-ylang101 174 Yubari King melon 149 Zimbabwe 176

Acknowledgments

Yutthasart Yanakornsiri 170cb (Rope), Yvdavyd 138cr, 151ca, Zakri2023 160tr, Dzmitry Zelianeuski 112cla, Sheng Zhang 139cl (Red bayberry), Zigzagmtart 148crb, Сергей Кучугурный 150ca; flickr.com/photos/ laajala/: 70cl; Nigel Forshaw: 104cla; GAP Photos: Jonathan Buckley 105c, Clive Nichols 113cl, Nova Photo Graphik 104cra, Friedrich Strauss 116cr, Visions 99crb; Garden World Images: Rita Coates 53tr; The Garden Collection: FP / BIOSPHOTO 99clb; Getty Images: 500Px Plus / Danny Dungo 72–73, Kazuo Ogawa / Aflo 71tr, AFP / Chaideer Mahyuddin 172–173, Nikolay Doychinov / Afp 75tl, AWL Images / Getty Images Plus / Catherina Unger 94clb, P. Bonduel 26cra, Corbis / Getty Images Plus / Paul Starosta 51tr, Corbis Documentary / Paul Starosta 85cr, 98clb, Creativ Studio Heinemann 138cl, De Agostini Picture Library 103tl, DEA / ARCHIVIO B / De Agostini 52crb (Spores), DigitalVision / Tony Anderson 20cra, Clay Perry / Corbis Documentary 74–75bc, Pankaj Upadhyay / EyeEm 112–113c, FlowerPhotos / UIG 29bl, Shem Compion / Gallo Images 151c, Joel Sartore / National Geographic Image Collection 87cra, André De Kesel 99cra, Konrad Wothe / Nature Picture Library 23cb, Lindeblad, Matilda 36clb, 190br, Maximilian Stock Ltd. / Photographer’s Choice 154cla, Mint Images - Art Wolfe 162–163, Mint Images - Paul Edmondson 123cla, I love Photo and Apple / Moment 70clb, Jordan Lye / Moment 8–9, Moment / Callahan Galleries 58l, Pavel Gospodinov / Moment 179br, Zen Rial / Moment 129crb, Navdeep Soni Photography 174tr, Andrey Nekrasov 85br, Micha Pawlitzki / Photodisc 78tr, Ed Reschke / Photolibrary 110tr, Piotr Naskrecki / Minden Pictures 102cb, Stephen Dalton / Minden Pictures 25tl, 68cb, REDA&CO / Universal Images Group Editorial 106clb, James Morgan / robertharding 160cla, Paul Starosta 75tr, Manuel Sulzer 77ca, Yuri Smityuk\TASS 68tr, Tiler84 111r, TimArbaev 170br (Latex), Universal Images Group / Auscape 95tl, David Lees / Corbis / VCG 178cb, Visuals Unlimited / Dr. Ken Wagner 41cl, Visuals Unlimited / Henry Robison 10cra, Buddhika Weerasinghe 167clb, Woraput / E+ 125tc; https://www. flickr.com/photos/heinerc/: 71cr; iStockphoto.com: abriendomundo 96–97, Tamonwan Amornpornhaemahiran 107tr, anatchant 146c, Anna39 61tl, AntiMartina 122br, asiafoto 69c, Balky79 61cr, Ballycroy 122bc, Baramyou0708 118tl, Chengyuzheng 155cl (Mung bean), 161cl, Creativeye99 150crb, 151cr, 154cr, cristaltran 132–133, Dafinchi 104–105bc, Damocean 88–89, design56 146crb, 191cla, DigiTrees 116ca, 116cl, DmitriyKazitsyn 109cb, DrPAS 117tc, Cislander / E+ 157c, E+ / ranasu 16br, Eloi_Omella 140–141, Elpy 22ca, emer1940 100crb, Enviromantic 166r, Eyepark 119tr, fcafotodigital / E+ 160c, Floortje 160cr, fotogaby / E+ 62–63, Griffin24 82–83c, joloei 147tr, Kynny 117br, lindarocks 107ca, lnzyx 112cb, lovelyday12 118r, malerapaso 67crb, Masuti 130l, Mickey_55 176c, Mikespics

Reviewer for the Smithsonian: Cynthia Brown, Smithsonian Gardens Education and Collections Manager

Smithsonian Enterprises: Kealy Gordon, Product Development Manager; Ellen Nanney, Senior Manager, Licensed Publishing; Jill Corcoran, Director, Licensed Publishing; Brigid Ferraro, Vice President, Consumer and Education Products; Carol LeBlanc, President, Consumer and Education Products

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The publisher would like to thank the following people for their help with making the book: Ann Baggaley, Shatarupa Chaudhari, Andrew Korah, Sarah MacCleod, Sai Prasanna, Isha Sharma, Mark Silas, and Fleur Star for editorial assistance; Noopur Dalal, Vidushi Gupta, Nidhi Mehra, and Nidhi Rastogi for design assistance; Nimesh Agrawal for picture research assistance; Anita Yadav for DTP assistance; Caroline Stamps for proofreading; Elizabeth Wise for indexing; John Woodward for additional text; and John Tullock for consulting on the US edition.

The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission to reproduce their photographs: (Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-center; f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top) 123RF.com: Annieeagle 157cb, Ariadna126 78cb, Zvonimir Atletic 57tl, Atm2003 167crb, Bbtreesubmission 130cb, Belchonock 166c (Wasabi sauce), 175cl, Maksym Bondarchuk 111clb, Martin Damen 117tr, Yaroslav Domnitsky 24cb, 25tr (Milk Thistle), Easterbunnyuk 175cr (Scrub), Richard Griffin 80cb, Steven Heap 16l, Alfred Hofer 126bl, Ruttawee Jaigunta 100bc, Joemat 167cr, Natthakan Jommanee 150c, Venus Kaewyoo 1, 36–37t, Karandaev 170cr, Suradech Kongkiatpaiboon 131bl, Koosen 22ca (Sunflower seeds), Vita Kosova 143r, Magone 138c, Maksym Narodenko 135ca, 138cb, Noppharat Manakul 154tl, Angel Luis Simon Martin 142crb (Green Almonds), Andrey Milkin 131r, Pusit nimnakorn 149tr, olegdudko 134ca (Kiwi), PaylessImages 149cr, Puripat penpun 57tc, pierivb 127crb, Teera Pittayanurak 170bc (Coconut tree), D rebha 166crb, rook76 176cla, Natalie Ruffing 111c, David Schliepp 22cla, Alfio Scisetti 76cla, SHS PHOTOGRAPHY 109br, Andrey Shupilo 17br, Genadijs Stirans 151cl, Phadungsak Suphorn 131cl, Nanthawan Suwanthong 6br, 169tl, Dmitriy Syechin 113tr, Poramet Thathong 149ca, Oksana Tkachuk 101cra, utima 135tr, Phong Giap Van 151cb, Bjoern Wylezich 149crb, Svetlana Yefimkina 37crb, Yurakp 139cl (Strawberries), Иван Ульяновский 10cra (Clubmoss), 47cr (Clubmoss); Alamy Stock Photo: RosaIreneBetancourt 7 60cr, AB Historic 179cb, Afripics 22cb, All Canada Photos 70cra, 122c, Archive PL 48cb, Arco Images GmbH 25tr, 101tr, Arterra Picture Library 6tr, 25ca, 104ca, Bill Lea / Dembinsky Photo Associates 123r, Bruce Montagne / Dembinsky Photo Associates 36crb, Auscape International Pty Ltd 60cl, Avalon / Photoshot License 24bl, 58c, 107c, Steven Bade 161tc, Robert Biedermann 87c, Biosphoto 100–101t, 102clb, Blickwinkel 48cr, 49crb, 53tl, 75cb, 79crb, 87br, 185tl, Joe Blossom 69cla, Sebastien Bonaime 5bc, 116cb, 186–187b, Mark Boulton 111tc, Buiten-Beeld 15cb (Kapok Tree), Nigel Cattlin 20–21b, 28cb, 47crb, 87cr, 127cb, Robert Clare 102tl, Jim Clark 122cr, Mark Collinson 41bl, Collpicto 52ca, Connection One 118clb, Rob Crandall 104c, 184bl, Custom Life Science Images 41cra, Jolanta Dąbrowska 49bl, 131l, Ethan Daniels 25cl, Universal Images Group North America LLC / DeAgostini 27tl, 92c, 128cra, Danita Delimont 91cra, Douglas Peebles Photography 91crb, Joel Douillet 75tc, 185cr, Stuart Fawbert 53cb, Florapix 60clb, 78clb, Flowers and Gardens by Jan Smith Photography 113cb, Shawn Hempel - Food 131ca, Frans Lanting Studio 119tl, Stephen French 137tr, Tim Gainey 86br, Bob Gibbons 59r, 60clb (Outeniqua Yellowwood), 102cb (Ivy Broomrape ), 105tl, James Hackland 83r, Peter J. Hatcher 25crb, Urs Hauenstein 79tc, David Hayes 78cla, Hemis 171crb, Heritage Image Partnership Ltd 178bl, HHelene 43bc, Historic Images 179bl, Thomas Kyhn Rovsing Hjørnet 87bl, Friedrich von Hörsten 79cb, D. Hurst 179cra, Rachel Husband 138ca, imageBROKER 28bc, 59c, 68cla, 79c, 93c, 105tc, 110cb, 120–121, imageBROKER / Guenter Fischer 71l, Johner Images 81crb, Kyselova Inna 153c, Interfoto 167c, blickwinkel / Jagel 60cb, 100c, Juniors Bildarchiv GmbH 105cr, Steven J. Kazlowski 92clb, Tamara Kulikova 36cla, Andrii Kutsenko 176cb (Hibiscus), Hervé Lenain 113c, Shih-Hao Liao 117cla, Pete Oxford / Nature Picture Library 18–19, Steve Gschmeissner / Science Photo Library 42bc, Margery Maskell 46–47bc, mauritius images GmbH 82bl, 108–109t, 117cr, Buddy Mays 152bl, MCLA Collection 170bc, McPhoto / Diez 156cla, Melba Photo Agency 26cla, MNS Photo 166cla, Jerome Moreaux 166cb, Hilary Morgan 178c, Robert Murray 81cb, Irina Naoumova 59ca, Jatesada Natayo 78c, National Geographic Image Collection 15ca, 119ca, Natural Visions 123bc, Nature Photographers Ltd 70bc, Nature Photographers Ltd / Paul R. Sterry 113clb, blickwinkel / McPHOTO / NBT 61c, Neftali 177tr, SK Hasan Ali / Alamy Live News 157tl, Dean Nixon 41bc, NPS Photo 105tr, Jose Okolo 105crb, Onehundred Percent 81bl, George Ostertag 11ca, 103tc, 112crb, 113ca, Panther Media GmbH 76bc, 87bc, Picture Partners 101c, Stefano Paterna 101cr, James Peake 71br, Thomas David Pinzer 78crb, Premium Stock Photography GmbH 117c, Steve Pridgeon 102c, Reda & Co Srl 52cb, Ian Redding 161cb, George Reszeter 25cb, RF Company 129bl, robertharding / Jack Jackson 164–165b, RZAF_Images 40c, Kjell Sandved 176ca, David Sewell 24tl, shapencolour 95cb, Shoot Froot 142crb, Antonio Siwiak 76ca, Southeast asia 103crb, Inga Spence 144tr, 188tr, Steve Allen Travel Photography 40l, Hans Stuessi 22ca (Balloon plant), 22ca (Marigold Seed), 22ca (Seed), Phillip Thomas 107cra, Travelstock44 91cr, Colin Varndell 83bl, Tom Viggars 80l, 81r, Dave Watts 68crb, 183bl, Jonny White 176clb, Wildlife Gmbh 6tc, 10cla, 10fcla, 56, 57bl, 58ca, 59tl, 83cra, 101crb, 154ca, Michael Willis 103l, Robert Wyatt 76cr, Zoonar GmbH 111crb; Barcroft Studios: Mark Graves / Oregonian Media Group 158–159; Keith Bradley: 119cb; Depositphotos Inc: AgaveStudio 157ca, Ajafoto 143crb, Antpkr 170cl, dabjola 87bc (loosestrife), Dbtale 22clb (Avocado), Kolesnikovserg 143clb, 182tr, levkro 117clb, Miiisha 139cl (Green grapevine), msk_nina| 5tr, 138tr, Photomaru 142ca, Sumners 174cb (Perfume), Nadja_77.Tut.by 155r, vvoennyy 33clb, ZlataMarka 130cra; John Doebley: Hugh Iltis, from John Doebley’s image gallery 164clb; Dorling Kindersley: Mark Winwood / Hampton Court Flower Show 2014 74cr, Colin Keates / Natural History Museum, London 51br, Gary Ombler: Green and Gorgeous Flower Farm 169tr, Frome & District Agricultural Society 134crb, Gary Ombler / Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 11fcla, Jeremy Gray 12clb, Josef Hlasek 49br, Frank Greenaway / Natural History Museum, London 69cl, Mark Winwood / Downderry Nursery 177cb, Peter Anderson / RHS 124–125c, Will Heap / Mike Rose 124tc, 182bl, Gary Ombler / Centre for Wildlife Gardening / London Wildlife Trust 2–3, 32crb, 40br, 80–81c, 106c, Wildlife Gardening / London Wildlife Trust 75cr, Will Heap / John Armitage 125tr, 189br, Justyn Willsmore 110l, Mark Winwood / RHS Wisley 10crb, 122bl; Dreamstime.com: 37704963 167cb, Tatyana Abramovich 24cl, Airubon 177crb, 183tr, Akiyoko74 154c, Natalya Aksenova 166bl, Akwitps 170cb, Alex7370 110–111cb, Alexan24 77bl, Alexfiodorov 21crb (Bean), Alessio Cola / Alexpacha 139crb, Anne Amphlett 11br, Nadezhda Andriyakhina 136ca, Arkadyr 26ca, Atman 35cra, 161r, Aurinko 130bc, Natalia Bachkova 29cl, Banprik 147clb, Barmalini 94–95c, 154tr, Beatricesirinun 71cb, Barbro Bergfeldt 167cl (Vanilla), Kateryna Bibro 137cr, 149clb, Harald Biebel 117ca, Vladimir Blinov 128ca, Stephan Bock 137c, Bombaert 41br, Pichest Boonpanchua 149clb (Korean melon), 156ca, Alena Brozova 134ca, Charles Brutlag 21crb (Seed), Marc Bruxelle 32cr, 74tr, 124cb, Leonello Calvetti 42–43c, Chernetskaya 22cl, Yutthana Choradet 161clb, Mohammed Anwarul Kabir Choudhury 166cl (Sesame), 174ca, Su Chun 67tr, Sharon Cobo 7tr, 125crb, Countrymama 148cra, Cpaulfell 41ca, Cynoclub 85cl, Jolanta Dabrowska 116tr, 166c, 186tl, Denira777 145tl, 161tl, Dewins 32clb, Dianazh 175tr, Digitalimagined 35c, 48br, 49c, 60crb, Cristina Dini 174crb, Anton Ignatenco / Dionisvera 150cl, Le Thuy Do 116clb, 148–149tc, Dohnal 130br, 131br, Draftmode 23cl, 134cr (Banana), 146tl, 157cl, Reza Ebrahimi 57crb, Ed8563 59ca (Tamarack Trees), Ekays 33r, Emilio100 143tl, 179c, Empire331 12crb, Eyeblink 15tc, Ama F 107bl, Fibobjects 77br, Sergii Koval / Fomaa 136bl, Gaja 16–17cla, Natalia Garmasheva 48ca, Patrick Gosling 122cla, Gow927 170–171c, Antonio Gravante 106tl, 171crb (Wine cork), Richard Griffin 80cra, David Hayes 69crb, Artem Honchariuk 130c, Zeng Hu 11bl, Boonchuay Iamsumang 174cb, Andrii Iarygin 13, Anton Ignatenco 150cla, Artem Illarionov 22c (Peach stone), Imagoinsulae 59clb, Irabel8 32cla, Irinaroibu 151crb, Irochka 77cla, Roman Ivaschenko 77bc, Wasana Jaigunta 128bc, 147cr, Janecat11 35clb, Jfanchin 34crb, Jianghongyan 139cl, 147c, Justas Jaru?evi?ius / Jjustas 22clb, Johannesk 118cb, Ang Wee Heng John | 12cb, Joophoek 176crb, Jpldesigns 32–33t, Numpon Jumroonsiri 24cl (Lotus seeds), Karelgallas 95br, Katerina Kovaleva / Kkovaleva 148cr, Kav777 109clb (Tree), Kazakovmaksim 32ca, Kenishirotie 134cr, Kenmind76 135tl (pear), Khunaspix 171c, Liliia Khuzhakhmetova 171br, Kianlin 137ca, Sharon Kingston 26crb, Klickmr 166cl, Sergey Kolesnikov 145cl, Kooslin 171cr (Hemp rope), Kostiuchenko 29tl, 29tl (flower), 29tl (poppy), Tetiana Kovalenko 104l, 175tl, Lev Kropotov 111cb, 175clb, Anna Kucherova 136cr, Tamara Kulikova 117cb, 138crb, Wipark Kulnirandorn 106crb, Kurapy11 151tr, Andrey Kurguzov 145clb, Denys Kurylow 58cb, 109cb (Evergreen Tree), Yauheni Labanau 7tc, 94cla, Kateryna Larina 107tl, Muriel Lasure 43cb, Robert Lerich 148cla, Lesichkadesign 109clb (Leaf), 154bc, Sergei Levashov 30–31c, Lightzoom 157tl (Brush), Liligraphie 153tl, Lirtlon 178crb, Luckyphotographer 91tr, Ludoriri 116crb, Thomas Lukassek 86b, Natthapon M 171clb, Robyn Mackenzie 66tc, Mahira 142crb (Almond), 166ca, Goncharuk Maksym 144clb (Red blood orange), Maocheng 157crb, Sarah Marchant 148ca, Massman 135br, Josip Matanovic 94cb, Vivian Mcaleavey 152cla, Nicola Messana 92cla, Microstock77 171cra, Barbara Delgado-millea 5bl, 144clb, Miraswonderland 34clb, Maksim Mironov 102cr, Elena Moiseeva 154cl, Graham Monamy 99bc, Tanakorn Moolsarn 171tr, Ruud Morijn 129cr, Msnobody 108ca, Tatiana Muslimova 142clb (Mango), N Van D / Nataliavand 29r, Natika 134clb, David Cabrera Navarro 166c (Tahini), Nbvf 152c, Neirfy 28br, Pedro Turrini Neto 22c, Nevinates 135clb, 146c (Persimmon), Niceregionpics 146clb, Natthawut Nungensanthia 130cb (Sorghum), Omidiii 142tr, Tatsuya Otsuka 116cla, Ovydyborets 35crb, 171cr, Palex66 145tr, Nipaporn Panyacharoen 175cb (Aloe vera), Bidouze St phane 109crb (Rainforest), Photographieundmehr 138cla, 168cl, 169br, Photographyfirm 160cb, Anna Kucherova / Photomaru 169c, Pikkystock 66crb, Pinkomelet 33cb, Chanwit Pinpart 94c, Pipa100 57tr, 137cb (Oca), 145crb, 149cl, 153cr, 156cra, 190tl, Pixbox77 171tc, Pixelife 25clb, Planctonvideo 127cra, Andrii Pohranychnyi 175cb, Olga Popova 49cla, Saran Poroong 38–39, Ppy2010ha 136cla, Anastasiia Prokofyeva 21crb (Dicot), Artaporn Puthikampol 66tl, Ra3rn 28ca, Radu Borcoman / Radukan 49ca, Rbiedermann 33br, 76br, Romasph 136cl, rRawlik 107r, Somphop Ruksutakarn 147crb, Sergey Rybin 48bl, Thongchai Saisanguanwong 177tl, Roman Samokhin 144cl, Juana María Gonzalez Santos 175cr, Sarah2 43cra, Antonio Scarpi 155cl, 189tr, Bernd Schmidt 124cla, 125cr, 125cb, Martin Schneiter 92cra, Alfio Scisetti 116c, 168crb, 175crb, Eleonora Scordo 37tr, Sally Scott 135bc, 160cl, Anna Sedneva 135tl, 152–153b, Toshihisa Shimoda 86cla, 160c (Cardoon), Alexander Sidyakov 122cra, Sirfujiyama 70tr, Poravute Siriphiroon 10br, Slallison 137cb, Sommai Sommai 145ca, 145cr, Stock Image Factory 174c, Stocksnapper 130c (Oats), Subbotina 147cb, Likit Supasai 148clb, Yodsawaj Suriyasirisin 142c, Swkunst 142tl, Taitai6769 22cr, Taechit Tanantornanutra 118cb (Fern), Maxim Tatarinov 138clb, Wallop Thamsuaydee 6tl, 146cra, 187tr, Threeart 30clb, Thungsarnphoto 171cb, Sergii Trofymchuk 28c, Ievgenii Tryfonov 109tr, Twoellis 160br, Valentyn75 7bl, 22ca (Poppy seeds), 147ca, Verastuchelova 84br, 168bc, Gabriel Vergani 131cr, Vitoriaholdingsllc 176cb, Vladvitek 23r, Vvoevale 33cla, Jürgen Wackenhut 74cl, Yael Weiss 22ca (Magnifying glass), Shane White 43crb, 23tl, milanfoto 152cra, Natefeldman 155tc, Ninell_Art 82bc, Only_Fabrizio 142clb, PicturePartners 157clb, Pittapitta 174l, Ploychan 93ca, Portogas-D-Ace 147l, Rvimages 131bc, Sieboldianus 93r, 111tl, Sunnybeach 142cl, Tacojim 123bl, tiler84 11cb, Toktak_Kondesign 40cr, UrosPoteko 155clb, Wushoung Wang 27clb, zlikovec 109crb; © Jeremy Rolfe (CC BY): 80ca; Jonas Dupuich/Bonsai Tonight: 124c; Farhad Karami: 21br; James Kuether: 54–55; Mary Evans Picture Library: Library of Congress 124clb; Jim Mercer: 93cb; Susan Middleton: Photo by D. Liittschwager and S. Middleton, © 2000 76cb; Monterey Bay Nursery: Luen Miller 52cb (Carrot Fern); NASA: Kennedy Space Center 180–181, Marshall Space Flight Center 74cb; National Geographic Creative: Michael Nichols 114–115; naturepl.com: Miles Barton 83cl, Simon Colmer 94ca, Adrian Davies 34cla, 98cla, Chris Mattison 82br, 118c, MYN / Marko Masterl 100cla, Niall Benvie / MYN 4br, 53bl, Colin Varndell 48cl; pflanzio.com: 53cla; Photo by Bryan Laughland: 61tr; PhytoImages: Dr. Daniel L. Nickrent 102crb; Rex by Shutterstock: imageBROKER 93cla, Jspix / imageBROKER 70crb, Frederik / imageBROKER / Shutterstock 110ca; Science Photo Library: Dr Keith Wheeler 15cb, Dr Morley Read 44–45, Eye Of Science 40ca, Michael P. Gadomski 59tc, Karl Gaff 49cb, Bob Gibbons 58cr, Steve Gschmeissner 28cb (Poppy seedling), M P Land 95tc, Cordelia Molloy 69clb, John Serrao 61clb, Nigel Cattlin / Science Source 47cra, Merlin D. Tuttle 69tr; Jenn Sinasac: https: // www.flickr.com / photos / jennsinasac 25cr (Used Thrice on the spread); Rituraj Singh: 176cra; SuperStock: Age Fotostock K22-216517 47cr, Biosphoto 27r, 85c, 112ca, Eye Ubiquitous 14–15c, J M Barres / age fotostock 58crb, Juniors 84cr; Wellcome http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/:CollectionScience Museum, London 49cra

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All other images © Dorling Kindersley For further information see: www.dkimages.com