Synonyms

Juniperus macropoda Boiss.; Juniperus polycarpos K. Koch

Juniperus indica Bertol.: Juniperus pseudosabina Fischer & Meyer; Juniperus wallichiana Hook. f. & Thomson ex E. Brandis; Juniperus wallichiana Hook. f. & Thomson ex Parl.; Juniperus wallichiana var. meionocarpa Hand.- Mazz.; Sabina indica (Bertol.) L.K. Fu & F. Yu; Sabina wallichiana (Hook.f. & Thomson ex Brandis) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu; Sabina wallichiana var. meionocarpa (Hand.-Mazz.) W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu

Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica (Kom.) Silba: Juniperus turkestanica Komarov

Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don: Juniperus recurva var. (A.B.. Jacks.) Melville; Juniperus recurva var. densa carriere; Juniperus recurva var. recurva; Juniperus recurva var. squamata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Parl.; Juniperus recurva var. tenuifolia Spach; Juniperus recurva var. uncinata R.P. Adams

Juniperus sibirica Burgsd.: Juniperus communis L. var. montana Aiton; Juniperus. communis var. nana (Willd.) Baumgarten; Juniperus nana Willdenow; Juniperus communis L. var. saxatilis Pallas; Juniperus albanica Penzes,; Juniperus argaea Balansa ex Parl.,; Juniperus borealis Salisb.; Juniperus caucasica Fisch ex Gordon; Juniperus communis var. arborescens Gaudin; Juniperus communis var. arborescens Gaudin; Juniperus communis var. aurea G.Nicholson; Juniperus communis f. aurea var. (G.Nicholson) Rehder; Juniperus communis var. brevifolia Sanio; Juniperus communis subsp. brevifolia (Sanio) Penzes.

Juniperus squamata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don: Juniperus squamata var. fargesii Rehder & E. H. Wilson; Juniperus squamata var. fargesii Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don; Juniperus squamata subsp. fargesii (Rehder & E.H. Wilson) Silba; Juniperus squamata var. hongxiensis Y.F.Yu & L.K.Fu; Juniperus squamata var. loderi (Hornibr) Hornibr.; Juniperus squamata var. meyeri Rehder; Juniperussquamata var. morrisonicola (Hayata) H.L.Li & H.Keng; Juniperus squamata var. parvifolia Y.F.Yu & L.K.Fu; Juniperus squamata var. prostrata Hornibr.;Juniperus squamata f. prostrata (Hornibr.) Rehder; Juniperus squamata f. Wilsonii Rehder; Juniperus squamata subs. Wilsonii (Rehder) Silba.

Local Names

Juniperus communis : Ladakh: Sukapa, Sukpa; Jammu: Bithur, Bitru, Mithro; Kashmir: Beter, Bethri, Dhoop, Nuch, Pama, Wethur; Urdu: Bhentri; Gilgit-Baltistan: Muthari.

Juniperus excelsa : Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: Ghondolik; Urdu: Chalai; Gilgit-Baltistan: Shupka, Chilli; Chitrali: Saroz سروز.

Juniperus indica : Amchi: Shuk pa, Lha shuk, Tseerma chen, Shuk pal, Shuk Tser, De shuk, Shug Pa; English: Black Juniper; Japan: Indo Nezu-no-ki; Nepali: Dhupi; Newar; Dhunma; Sherpa: Shukp-pa; Kashmir: Guugal; Tamang: Pama, Pamo.

Juniperus recurva : Hindi: Bettar, Thelu, Bettar, Thelu; Nepali: Dhupi; Sherpa: Chhersyukpa; Tamang: Syukpa; Ladakh: Sukpa, Lha-shook; Jammu: Bitru, Bithar, Itru; English: Drooping juniper, Weeping blue juniper.

Juniperus sibirica : Nepali: Dhupi Phar; Sanskrit: Hapushaa; Tamang: Pama; English: Himalayan pencil cedar, Common juniper.

Juniperus squamata : Amchi: Shuk tser; Nepali: Dhupi, ukkri; Sherpa: Chher syukpa; English Juniper.

Botany and Ecology

Juniperus communis : Trailing shrubs, diocecious. Branches partly decumbent, partly ascending. Leaves strongly odoriferous; acicular leaves lance-linear, spiny-pointed; imbricated leaves lustrous, rhombic to rhombic-lanceolate, apex acute to obtuse, with a keel and an oval gland on the back. Inflorescence composed of ovaloid aments, with round scales, pale yellow. Fruits solitary, profuse, small, 6–8 mm long, 5–6 mm wide, rounded-ovate, brownish, pruinose, with 4–6 scales; seeds mostly 2, though occasionally 1, 3, 4, or 6, ovoid, prominently keeled below. Growing on wind-blown sand, chalk, rocks, exposed southern slopes, and stony slopes of hills and low mountains, more often in steppe than in the forest belt. Found in the Caucasus and Central Asia, South and Central Europe, and North Mongolia. Both species are native to the mountains of central and southern Europe and western and central Asia, from Spain to eastern Siberia, typically growing at altitudes of 1000–3300 m. All parts of the plant are poisonous due to several toxic compounds including ethereal oils. Found in montane to subalpine coniferous forests of Larix, Picea, and Pinus, gradually replacing these where under human-imposed grazing regimes; also invading into alpine meadows when old grazing patterns are changed, e.g., intensified. This species is most abundant on sunny, dry slopes in mountains with a mesic climate like the Alps; its drought tolerance accounts for its wider distribution in Asia into the Artemisia steppe and desert zones. It is often found on limestone substrates but occurs on granitic rock as well, especially on drier slopes. Distributed in the regions of Guba and Eastern Greater Caucasus and mountainous part of Nakhchivan. Grows in upper mountain, subalpine, and alpine belts. Found on stony slopes, landslides, and among shrubs (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Regarded as endangered (Ahmad Jan et al. 2019) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 1
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Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Pakistan. (Photo: Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 2
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Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Pakistan. (Photo: Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Fig. 3
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Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Verwall, Austria. (Photo: Rainer W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 4
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Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo: Rainer W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Juniperus excelsa : Monoecious medium sized trees. Leaves on upper branches scale-like, opposite, decussate, 1.5–2-mm long, broadly ovate, closely appressed, on the lower branches subulate, 6–8-mm long, pungent. Male cones terminal on branchlets, scales imbricate. Berries subglobose, blue-black when ripe, ±10 mm broad. Seeds 3–5, brownish-yellow, testa thick. Pencil cedar’ is fairly common, forming open forests in Baluchistan and the inner drier valleys of the Himalaya from 2000–4000 m. The wood is used for fuel, beams and for pencil-making. Also used as an incense. Fruit is medicinal. The seed number varies from 2–5. Common name: “Shupa, Shur.” Flowering May, fruiting October;. S.W. Europe, Caucasus, Iran, Arabia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, N. W. & W. Himalaya, Nepal (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Fig. 5
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Juniperus excelsa (Cupressaceae), Pakistan. (Photo: Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 6
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Juniperus excelsa (Cupressaceae), Pakistan. (Photo: Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 7
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Juniperus excelsa (Cupressaceae), Pakistan. (Photo: Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Fig. 8
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Juniperus excelsa (Cupressaceae), fruits and leaves, Pakistan. (Photo: Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Juniperus indica : Shrubs erect or procumbent, to 2 m, rarely small trees, dioecious; ultimate branchlets densely arranged, mostly straight, usually 4-angled, sometimes terete. Leaves both scalelike and needlelike; needlelike leaves usually present on young trees, in whorls of 3, ascending, 3–8 mm, apex acuminate; scale-like leaves decussate or sometimes in whorls of 3, closely appressed, rhombic, 1.2–2 mm, abaxial gland central, or basal in needlelike leaves, oblong or linear, depressed, leaf apex obtuse. Pollen cones subglobose or ovoid, 2–3 mm; microsporophylls 6–8, each with 2 or 3 pollen sacs. Seed cones erect, black-brown when ripe, subglobose or ovoid, 6–13 × 5–8 mm, 1(or 2)-seeded. Seeds ovoid, slightly flattened, 5–6 × ca. 4 mm, smooth or obscurely ridged (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Juniperus pseudosabina : Tree to 18 m (averaging 8 m) or low shrub to 2 m tall; crown dense; bark brownish-gray, thinly scaling; branches suberect to horizontally drooping; leafy branchlets erect, 1.5–2 mm thick; leaves 2 mm long, oval, sharp-pointed, with a prominent dorsal gland, rarely glandular, prominently keeled and obtuse-tipped; fruit juicy, with a high sugar content, globose or oblong, 10–15 mm long, 8–10 mm broad, black, glossy, slightly pruinose; seeds oblong to globose-oblong, tapering toward base, obtusely rounded at apex, sometimes slightly concave at the middle, rarely flat, very rarely short-pointed, 6–10 mm long, 5–7 mm broad, with a dark shiny strip in upper part and lateral grooves, the woody coat very thick. Some trees are aged 300–500 years. Middle Asia (Pamir-Alai and Tien Shan), forming juniper woods by itself or mixed with Juniperus semiglobosa, at altitudes of 900–3200 m. (Iljin 1934).

Juniperus recurva : Shrubs or trees monoecious or rarely dioecious; bark light grayish brown or brown; crown conical or broadly pyramidal; branches ascending in apical part of plant and spreading toward base; branchlets pendulous, curved. Leaves in whorls of 3, loosely appressed, greenish white or slightly glaucous adaxially, all needlelike, nearly straight, slightly incurved, 3–10 × ca. 1 mm, concave adaxially, base decurrent, convex with longitudinal grooves at base abaxially, apex sharply pointed. Pollen cones axillary, yellow, ovoid-oblong or ellipsoid-ovoid; microsporophylls 10–16, decussate, each with 3 pollen sacs. Seed cones axillary, slightly glaucous when young, maturing purplish black and not glaucous, ovoid, 6–12 × 5–9 mm, 1-seeded. Seeds ovoid or conical-ovoid, 5–9 × 3–6 mm (Wu et al. 1994–2013).

Juniperus sibirica : Perennial. Evergreen prostrate shrubs, up to 70 cm–2 m height with reddish brown bark; branchlets densely arranged, 3-angled, thick, ca. 2 mm in diam. Leaves in whorls of 3, ascending, lanceolate or linear, usually subfalcate, 4–10 × 1–2 mm, slightly concave adaxially with a single white stomatal band broader than green marginal bands, keeled abaxially, base jointed, not decurrent. Flowers small axillary, supported by small imbricating bracts, the catkin ovoid, yellow, amentiferous scales broad ovate, acuminate. Pollen cones axillary, subglobose or ellipsoid, 3–5 mm; microsporophylls 9–12, each with 3–6 pollen sacs. Seed cones brownish black when ripe, glaucous, globose or subglobose, 4–7 mm in diam. Seeds 1–3 per cone, 3–4 mm. Propagated by seeds. Flowering: April –May and fruiting: April–June. Plants are occurring in dry steppe in an altitude 2700–2900 m.

Juniperus squamata : Perennial. A dwarf spreading prostrate evergreen shrub or small trees to 1–2 m tall; branches ascending or horizontally spreading; branchlets densely arranged, straight or curved, usually short, not angled. Leaves in whorls of 3, spreading or ascending, sometimes nearly appressed, needlelike, straight or slightly curved, (2.5–) 5–10 × 1–1.5 mm, slightly concave, with white stomatal bands adaxially, obtusely ridged with longitudinal, thin groove on ridge or at base abaxially, base decurrent, apex acute or acuminate. Pollen cones ovoid, 3–4 mm; microsporophylls 9–12, each with 3 pollen sacs. Seed cones black or bluish black when ripe, ovoid or subglobose, 4–8 × 4–6 mm, 1-seeded. Seeds ovoid, 3.5–6 × 2–5 mm, ridged, with resin pits. Propagated by seeds. Flowering and fruiting: June –August. It grows in dry open, forests, thickets, valleys, and roadsides in mountain areas; 1600–4500 m. S Anhui, W Fujian, S Gansu, E Guizhou, W Hubei, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Taiwan, Xizang, Yunnan [Afghanistan, Bhutan, N India, Kashmir, N Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sikkim (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9
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Juniperus sp. (Cupressaceae), Juniperus scrub at Langtang National Park, Nepal. (Photo-Ila Shrestha)

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Local Medicinal Uses

Juniperus communis : Used for colds, fever (Wali et al. 2019), dermatitis (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), as well as rheumatism (Adams et al. 2009). Serves also as sedative, to regulate urine discharge, and to control burning sensation in urination (Ballabh et al. 2008). Used also to treat joint pain, skin diseases, tuberculosis, diabetes, asthma, bronchitis, liver, and spleen problems (Kayani et al. 2015). In Jammu, Ladakh, and Kashmir, used as carminative, diuretic, for dysmenorrhea, skin diseases, as stimulant, for asthma, against tumors, warts, as anthelmintic, carminative, to treat dropsy, gynecological disorders, kidney complaints, toothache (Gairola et al. 2014).

Juniperus excelsa : Fruit is diuretic, carminative, stimulant, used in dropsy, gonorrhea, leucorrhea, and for skin diseases. Wood ash is mixed with tobacco to make good quality of “Naswar” (Snuff) (Ishtiaq et al. 2013). Berries are used for tuberculosis and diabetes. The berries are burnt over coal and smoke is spread in all corners of the house for repelling evils. The paste of berries is applied on painful joints and swellings (Qureshi et al. 2007). Fruit is used for stomach ulcer and fever (Abbas et al. 2016). The aqueous extract from crushed fruits is anthelmintic (Khan et al. 2011a, b). Fruit juice is used to remove kidney stone, rheumatism, respiratory disorders, and backache (Bano et al. 2014). Berries are used for tuberculosis and diabetes. The berries are burnt over coal and smoke is spread in all corners of the house for repelling evils. The paste of berries is applied on painful joints and swelling (Shedayi and Gulshan 2012). Fruit is used as diuretic, carminative, stimulant, used in dropsy, gonorrhea, gleets, leucorrhea and some cutaneous diseases, stomach cramps, and asthma. Extract from shoots is anthelmintic. While fruit extract is drunk in case of abdominal pain (Shah and Hussain 2012). Fruits are used for as urinary, venereal, uterine, and digestive troubles as well as gleets. The decoction of fresh berries is used for abdominal pain. Leaves are burnt and the ash is mixed with grinded tobacco to make snuff. Its leaves are still considered sacred and burnt to produce smoke to prevent houses from evil spirits (Khan et al. 2011a, b). Used to treat diabetes, tuberculosis, rheumatism, burns, cold, fever, arthritis, typhoid, wounds, and kidney stones (Tetik et al. 2013; Wali et al. 2019). Dried cones taken with milk for abdominal pain (Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019). Used also for stomach ulcers and fever (abbas et al. 2019). For joint pain, to remove kidney stones, asthma, dropsy, gonorrhea, leucorrhea, as diuretic, for stomach cramps, and skin diseases (Kayani et al. 2015).

Juniperus indica : to treat colds, cuts and fever (Singh et al. 2017).

Juniperus recurva smoke is inhaled to remedy vomiting and headache (Tamang et al. 2017). Promotes kidney function (Ballabh et al. 2008; Gairola et al. 2014), for cough, as emetic, paralysis, skin problems, diarrhea, indigestion, and rheumatism (Gairola et al. 2014).

Juniperus sabina : is used for diseases of the skin. A powder from the leaves is used externally for the treatment purulent ulcers. Fresh crushed leaves are pulverized and applied with sweet butter on scabies and for the elimination of warts. A water infusion is used against worm in small doses. The fruits are used as diuretic, for prostate problems, urinary problems, and to treat toothache. The leaves are used to treat skin problems. The roots are employed for blood cleansing, as detoxicant, for gallbladder ailments and urinary system problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017). An infusion of the fruits is used for urogenital diseases, kidneys and bladder problems, kidney stones, liver diseases, rheumatism, scurvy, jaundice, stomach ulcers, and to improve the appetite. A decoction of the roots is used for stomach ulcers, bronchitis, tuberculosis, kidney stones, and skin illnesses and arthritis. The bark infusion is also used for male impotence. The cones and green branches are used as baths for rheumatism.

Juniperus squamata is used to treat dermatitis (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), fever, cough, colds and dermatitis, and the species shows antiviral activity (Rajbhandari et al. 2007).

Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica: The fruit decoction is used mouth-wash for gingivitis, eczema, skin diseases, and internally as diuretic (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Juniperus seravschanica : Smoke from burning branches is used in Middle Asia for rheumatism. Powdered material is inhaled to treat headaches. The oil is used for wounds and skin diseases. Internally an infusion of dry fruits is used for urogenital problems, scurvy, liver disease, rheumatism edema, and nervous disorders. Fresh fruits are eaten to treat stomach ulcers and to increase the appetite. The bark decoction is used as choleretic to treat jaundice. The root infusion is used to remedy stomach ulcers, bronchitis, tuberculosis, kidney stones, treat arthritis, male impotency. A decoction of the fruits and green branches is used as bath for rheumatism (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

In Georgia, decoctions of needles and fruits of Juniperus sp. were widely used in folk medicine to treat diseases of the genitourinary apparatus as anti-inflammatory and diuretic remedy. It was considered effective for urinary retention. Decoction was also used to treat rheumatism and skin diseases incl. dermatitis. One of the sources indicates use of juniper “water” as a painkiller for various pains, however, the plant part used is not specified. Fruit and oil made of fruit are used in folk medicine. Its “water” (presumably, infusion or possibly decoction, but unclear of which plant part) was used as a painkiller for various pains. Decoction of needles and fruit was used to treat urinary retention. Decoctions are widely used in folk medicine to treat chronic inflammation of kidneys and urinary bladder as well as rheumatism, skin diseases including dermatitis. Used to treat diseases of the genitourinary apparatus (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Juniperus polycarpos Used to treat gynecological problems, kidney inflammation and bleeding and urinary disorders (Gairola et al. 2014).

Juniperus depressa : The fruits are used as medicine (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Juniperus hemisphaerica : The branches are used for blood cleansing, kidney problems, and the urinary system in general (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Juniperus oblonga : The branches are used for blood cleansing, kidney problems, and the urinary system in general. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses

Juniperus communis : Used to make beer in Poland (Madej et al. 2014).

Juniperus semiglobosa : The fruits are used to increase appetite, aid in digestion, as diuretic, disinfectant of the urinary system, anti-inflammatory, for pneumonia, as analgesic and expectorant. The oils are used for skin problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses

Juniperus communis : Ash used as snuff, also for thatch (Wali et al. 2019).

Juniperus excelsa : For furniture, thatch, snuff, and as firewood (Wali et al. 2019). The ash is mixed with tobacco and best quality “Naswar” (Snuff) is prepared (Hussain et al. 2006).

Juniperus sabina is used for dyeing: A dye solution is prepared from needless young shoots and immature fruits to obtain olive color. The dye is used for dyeing wool and silk in yellow and grey shades, and for scented soaps. The leaves serve as diuretic and for dermatological problems in veterinary medicine (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Juniperus depressa : The stems are used for smoking ham (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Juniperus oblonga : The stems are used as firewood (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020a, b; Bussmann 2017).

In Georgia a decoction of species of Juniperus is used as diuretic for cattle, as well as to treat skin infections and skin parasites. A dye solution is prepared from needless young shoots and immature fruits to obtain olive color. The dye is used for dyeing wool and silk in yellow and grey shades In Georgia a decoction of species of Juniperus is used as diuretic for cattle, as well as to treat skin affections and skin parasites. A dye solution is prepared from needless young shoots and immature fruits to obtain olive color. The dye is used for dyeing wool and silk in yellow and grey shades (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10
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Juniperus sp. (Cupressaceae), Juniperus twigs are used as incense at Gosaikunda lake area, Rasuwa, Nepal. (Photo: Ripu Kunwar)

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