Most Pack roleplays within WolfQuest are made up of groups with fictional ranks. A real pack in reality is comprised of the parents and their offspring. They do not have any ranks, nor dominance over each other. On some occasions, there can be other wolves that are not part of being a parent themselves, but are related in some way in most cases. In the end, they are a family unit, and stay exclusively that.

However, with the many years of WolfQuest and wolf roleplays existing, there are now fictional packs that are very common. These fictional packs within roleplays follow a list of ranks that are renamed as the greek alphabet. Of these ranks, there are two healer titles: Thetas and iotas. Neither of these exist within real wolf packs; this was created by the community as a whole.

"Thetas" are the main healers within most packs. They are the main healers that will care for their pack members, have choices on how to heal, and teach new wolves who want to become healers.

"Iotas" are secondary healers, the average worker in a sense. They are able to collect herbs and heal their packmates, but they rank below their Thetas, which are considered their higher-up.

Any wolf can become a healer within a pack. There can also be thetas and iotas that are exclusively loners and do not join packs. They are still considered healers.

A majority of information on the herbs in this document is taken from the 'naturalmedicinalherbs' network. Any available plants are also backed up and cross-referenced by published research and books by the following herbalists & authors: Alma R. Hutchens, Rosemary Gladstar, Penelope Ody, and James A Duke. Please do not use this as a list for real-life treatment, as herbs can interact with medications and must be researched by the individual for proper usage.

This is purely written as a personal aid for roleplayers based on/within the setting of Yellowstone National Park. It has the names of specific species, however these will contain species that may not be native or seen within the park. These other herbs are taken as replacements for the effects of missing species that are related within the park, and have no known information on the specific species.

Please recognize this list is still a work-in-progress as time goes on. This will be edited, knowledge on the plants expanded, and more details added over time. This also includes changing the grammar from the original websites the information was taken from, as well as some other additional edits to make it easier to easily find a necessary herb with a simple search. For now, this is a crude rough-draft that will be expanded upon whenever possible.

In total, this list is a compilation of 83 plants with medicinal purposes. Of these, there will also be an additional 3 plants that have no medicinal purpose and are instead extremely toxic or have purely negative effects.

(Taken from the Herbalgram Organization. )


Herbal Mixtures:

Acetract: a herbal preparation that uses vinegar to extract minerals and aromatic compounds from fresh or dried plant material.

Carrier oil: Vegetable oils derived from seeds, kernels, or nuts of a plant, such as avocado, sunflower, apricot, or coconut. Carrier oils are used to dilute concentrated essential oils so they can be “carried” safely into the skin for therapeutic benefits.

Cordial stimulating beverages shared between friends and loved ones to invoke a sense of well-being. They are meant to warm, stimulate, and aid digestion.

Cream: a semisolid emulsion of oil (often herb-infused) and water (often an infusion or decoction).

Decoction: An extract, often referred to as a tea, made by simmering dense plant material (primarily the bark, rhizomes, roots, and seeds) in water. Natural dyes are often made this way also.

Electuary: powdered herbs combined with enough honey to create a spreadable paste.

Elixir: a clear, sweet liquid containing at least one active ingredient, used for medicinal purposes; contains honey or simple syrup and may contain alcohol (brandy or vodka).

Essential Oils: Highly concentrated aromatic volatile oils extracted via steam distillation from the leaves, flowers, bark, and other parts of plants that contain high amounts of the essential oils. Therapeutic use generally includes dilution of the highly concentrated oil in a carrier oil.

Eyebaths/eyewash: using gentle herbs as a dilute, cool infusion to bathe the tissue surrounding the eye to reduce itchiness, redness, or infection. Care must be taken to ensure that no plant material remains in the eyewash.

Fluid extract: A concentrated liquid herbal preparation containing equal parts herb or crude drug with a hydro-ethanolic solvent made so that each 1 mL of liquid contains 1 g of the herb or crude drug that is used.

Gargle: swishing a disinfectant or anti-inflammatory liquid herbal preparation as a herbal mouthwash.

Gel: a semi-solid colloidal dispersion of a solid substance with a liquid or gas, such as a jelly.

Glycerite: a liquid preparation of a herb or medicinal substance dissolved in or mixed with vegetable glycerin.

Herbal Compress: soaking a clean soft cloth in a strained, strong herbal infusion or decoction, used warm or cold, held in place onto the affected area to alleviate pain or reduce inflammation.

Infused Oils: A process of extraction in which the volatile oils and other fat-soluble compounds of a plant are obtained by soaking the plant material in a carrier oil for two to four weeks or via gentle heating. The oil is then strained off and used alone or in making therapeutic skin salves, ointments, lotions and creams.

Infusion: An extract, often referred to as a tea but more accurately a tisane, made by pouring boiling water over fresh or dried plant material (usually flowers, fruit, or leaves), which is allowed to steep for 10-20 minutes before drinking. Cold infusions are prepared when the goal is to extract polysaccharides, mucilage, and nutrients often reduced or damaged by hot water. Infusions are an easy and affordable way to administer herbs. They may be used therapeutically or as a beverage tea, depending on the herb(s) and amounts used.

Liniment: A plant extract prepared in a base of alcohol, witch hazel, or vinegar to be applied topically to sore muscles, sprains, bruises, boils, burns, or sunburns to soothe pain and reduce inflammation.

Lotion: a liquid preparation containing water and/or alcohol that is used to emulsify or suspend insoluble plant material, to be used topically for skin conditions that are itchy, inflamed, infected, or painful.

Oxymel: a remedy from ancient Greece and Persia that combines a herb infused vinegar with honey; oxy means acid and mel means honey.

Percolation: A process to extract the soluble constituents of a plant with the assistance of gravity. The material is moistened and evenly packed into a tall, slightly conical vessel; the liquid (menstruum) is then poured onto the material and allowed to steep for a certain length of time. A small opening is then made in the bottom, which allows the extract to slowly flow out of the vessel. The remaining plant material (the marc) may be discarded. Many tinctures and liquid extracts are prepared this way.

Plaster: a medicated or protective dressing that consists of spreading powdered, slightly moistened herbs onto a cloth and covered with plastic to protect clothing and trap body heat.

Poultice: A therapeutic topical application of a soft, moist mass of plant material (bruised fresh herbs), usually wrapped in a fine woven cloth and applied to the affected area.

Salve: a semi-solid medicinal ointment prepared by combining an herb infused oil with beeswax.

Syrup: an herbal preparation that combines an infusion or decoction with an equal amount of simple syrup (concentrated sugar solution) or honey.

Tincture: An extract of a plant made by soaking (macerating) herbs in a solution of alcohol or of a specific ratio of alcohol to water. Tinctures macerate for two to six weeks in a dark place after which the liquid extract is strained from the plant material and used therapeutically.

Tisane: Originally from the Greek ptisanē, to crush, tisanes are infusions of fresh or dried herbs used as a medicinal beverage.

adaptogen – works through the endocrine system to modulate the physical, mental, and emotional effects of stress and increase resistance to physiological imbalances and disease by strengthening the immune system

adjuvant – aids the action of a medicinal agent

alterative – strengthens and nourishes the body, often through the removal of metabolic wastes

amphoteric – normalizes function of an organ or body system

analeptic – restorative or stimulating effect on central nervous system

analgesic – relieves pain

anesthetic – induces loss of sensation or consciousness due to the depression of nerve function

antianemic – prevents or helps with anemia

antibacterial – destroys or stops the growth of bacteria

antibilious – eases stomach stress

anticatarrh – reduces inflamed mucous membranes of head and throat

antidepressant – acts to prevent, cure, or alleviate mental depression

antidiabetic – prevents or relieves diabetes

antidiarrhetic –prevents or treats diarrhea

antiemetic – stops vomiting

antifungal – destroys or inhibits the growth of fungus

antihemorrhagic – controls hemorrhaging or bleeding

anti-infectious – counteracts infection

anti-inflammatory – controls inflammation, a reaction to injury or infection

antimalarial – prevents or relieves malaria

antimicrobial – destroys microbes

antioxidant – prevents or inhibits oxidation

antipruritic – prevents or relieves itching

antipyretic – reduces fever (febrifuge)

antirheumatic – eases pain of rheumatism, inflammation of joints and muscles

antiseptic – produces asepsis, removes pus, blood, etc.

antispasmodic – calms nervous and muscular spasms or convulsions

antitussive – controls or prevents cough

antiviral – opposes the action of a virus

anxiolytic – reduces anxiety

aperient – relieves constipation; mild laxative

aperitive – stimulates the appetite for food

aromatic – a herb containing volatile oils, fragrant odor and slightly stimulating properties

asepsis – sterile; free of germs, infection, and any form of life

astringent – constricts and binds by coagulation of proteins

aquaretic – increases blood flow to the kidneys without increasing sodium and chloride resorption, thereby retaining electrolytes while increasing urine output; increases intravascular fluid volume which increases vascular resistance and blood pressure

bitter – stimulates appetite or digestive function

bronchial –relaxes spasms or constriction of the bronchi or upper part of the lungs, thereby improving respiration

carcinostatic –halts or inhibits the development or continued growth of cancer, carcinomas, or malignant tumors

cardiotonic – increases strength and tone (normal tension or response to stimuli) of the heart

carminative -- causes the release of stomach or intestinal gas

catarrhal – pertains to the inflammation of mucous membranes of the head and throat

cathartic – produces bowel movements

caustic – contains acidic compounds that have an escharotic or corrosive action that is capable of burning or eating away living tissues

cholagogue – increases flow of bile from gallbladder

cicatrizant – aids formation of scar tissue and wound healing

counterirritant – produces an inflammatory response for affecting an adjacent area

demulcent – soothes and protects inflamed and irritated mucous membranes both topically and internally

deobstruent – removes obstructions to clear or open natural ducts of the fluids and secretions of the body

dermatitis – inflammation of the skin evidenced my itchiness, redness, and various lesions

detergent – cleanses wounds and sores of infected or damaged tissue

diaphoretic – increases perspiration (synonym: sudorific)

digestive – promotes or aids the digestion process

disinfectant – destroys pathogenic microbes, germs, and noxious properties of fermentation

diuretic – increases urine flow

ecbolic – tends to increase contractions of uterus, facilitating childbirth

emetic – produces vomiting and evacuation of stomach contents

emmenagogue – regulates and induces normal menstruation

emollient – softens and soothes the skin

errhine –stimulates sneezing, increasing flow of mucus in nasal passages

escharotic – a caustic substance that destroys tissue and causes sloughing

estrogenic – causes the production of estrogen

euphoriant – produces a sense of bodily comfort; temporary effect and often addictive

expectorant – facilitates removal of mucus and other materials

febrifuge – reduces or relieves fever

galactagogue – promotes the flow of milk

hemagogue – promotes the flow of blood

hemostatic – controls or stops the flow of blood

hepatic – having to do with the liver

herpetic – treats skin eruptions relating to the herpes virus

hypertensive – raises blood pressure

hypnotic – strong-acting nervous system relaxant (nervines) that supports healthy sleep

hypoglycemiant – lowers blood sugar

hypotensive – lowers blood pressure

lactifuge – reduces the flow of milk

laxative – loosens bowel contents

lithotriptic – a substance that causes kidney or bladder stones to dissolve

masticatory – increases flow of saliva upon chewing

mucilaginous – polysaccharide-rich compounds that coat and soothe inflamed mucous membranes

narcotic – induces drowsiness, sleep, or stupor, and lessons pain

nephritic – has a beneficial influence on the kidneys

nervine – a nerve tonic

nootropic – enhances memory, improves cognitive function and mood, reduces oxidative and ischemic damage to the brain

nutritive – a herb containing nutrients required to nourish and build the body

orexigenic – stimulates or increases the appetite

parturfaciant – induces contractions of labor at childbirth

purgative – causes the evacuation of intestinal contents; laxative

refrigerant – relieves thirst with its cooling properties

relaxant – tends to relax and relieve tension, especially muscular tension

renal –strengthens, cleanses or treats imbalance or disease states affecting the kidneys

resorbent – aids reabsorption of blood from bruises

rubefacient – reddens skin, dilates the blood vessels, and increases blood supply locally

sedative – exerts a soothing, tranquilizing effect on the body

sialagogue – increases the production and flow of saliva

soporific -- induces sleep

stimulant – increases body or organ function temporarily

stomachic – aids the stomach and digestive action

sudorific – increase perspiration

tonic – stimulates energy and increases strength and tone

trophorestorative – nourishes and restores balance to the body. Trophorestorative herbs typically have a strong affinity for an organ or organ system and correct deficiency and weakness not only through temporary stimulation but by deeply nourishing that organ or organ system.

vermifuge – expels worms from the intestines

vulnerary – aids in healing wounds

American Bistort
(Bistorta bistortoides)

Medicinal Use: The root is astringent. A poultice has been used in treating sores and boils.

Locations: Moist or wet meadows and swamps, seldom below 2500 metres.

Notes: Although no specific mention has been made for this species, there have been reports that some members of this genus can cause photosensitivity in susceptible people. Many species also contain oxalic acid (the distinctive lemony flavour of sorrel) - whilst not toxic this substance can bind up other minerals making them unavailable to the body and leading to mineral deficiency. Having said that, a number of common foods such as sorrel and rhubarb contain oxalic acid and the leaves of most members of this genus are nutritious and beneficial to eat in moderate quantities. Cooking the leaves will reduce their content of oxalic acid. People with a tendency to rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones or hyperacidity should take especial caution if including this plant in their diet since it can aggravate their condition.

American Blackcurrant
(Ribes americanum)

Medicinal Use: A decoction of the roots has been used to treat kidney problems and also to expel worms. It has been used by women to treat uterine problems. The root bark is anthelmintic. The polticed root bark has been applied to swellings.

Locations: Rich thickets and slopes.

American Valerian
(Valeriana sitchensis)

Medicinal Use: Valerian is a well-known and frequently used medicinal herb that has a long and proven history of efficacy. It is noted especially for its effect as a tranquilliser and nervine, particularly for those people suffering from nervous overstrain. Valerian has been shown to encourage sleep, improve sleep quality and reduce blood pressure. It is also used internally in the treatment of painful menstruation, cramps, hypertension, irritable bowel syndrome etc. It should not be prescribed for patients with liver problems. Externally, it is used to treat eczema, ulcers and minor injuries. The root is antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, hypnotic, powerfully nervine, sedative and stimulant. The active ingredients are called valepotriates, research has confirmed that these have a calming effect on agitated people, but are also a stimulant in cases of fatigue. The roots of 2 year old plants are harvested in the autumn once the leaves have died down and are used fresh or dried. The fresh root is about 3 times as effective as roots dried at 40C, whilst temperatures above 82C destroy the active principle in the root. Use with caution, see the notes above on toxicity.

Locations: Moist open or wooded places at mid or upper elevations in the mountains, often in wet meadows.

Notes: Some caution is advised with the use of this plant. At least one member of the genus is considered to be poisonous raw and V. officinalis is a powerful nervine and sedative that can become habit-forming.

Arnica
(Arnica cordifolia)

Medicinal Use: The whole plant is anti ecchymotic, antiphlogistic, nervine, sternutatory and vulnerary. When applied intravenously or orally it causes a rise in body temperature. All parts of the plant may be used, but the flowers are used in preference to the root. They have a discutient property and a tincture is used as an external application to swellings, sprains, bruises and wounds. A salve applied to cuts helps to keep down infections.

Locations: Woodlands in foothills up to high elevations in mountains.

Notes: The whole plant is toxic and should only be used for external applications to unbroken skin.

Arrowleaf Balsamroot
(Balsamorhiza sagittata)

Medicinal Use: Oregon sunflower was quite widely employed as a medicinal herb by various native North American tribes who used it to treat a variety of complaints, but especially stomach problems. It is little used in modern herbalism. The root is antirheumatic, diuretic, cathartic, diaphoretic, febrifuge and vulnerary. An infusion of the leaves, roots and stems has been used as a treatment for stomach pains, colds, whooping cough, TB, fevers and headaches. A decoction of the root has been taken at the beginning of labour to insure easy delivery. The juice from the chewed root is allowed to trickle down the throat to treat sore mouths and throats whilst the root has also been chewed to treat toothaches. The smoke from the root has been inhaled as a remedy for body aches such as rheumatism. The root is chewed or pounded and used as a paste on wounds, blisters, bites, swellings and sores. A poultice made from the coarse, large leaves has been used to treat severe burns. An infusion of the leaves has been used as a wash for poison ivy rash and running sores. The seeds have been eaten as a treatment for dysentery.

Locations: Open hillsides and flat land up to moderate elevations, especially on deep soils.

Asters
(Aster amellus)

Medicinal Use: The roots are anti-inflammatory, antitussive, depurative, haemostatic and pectoral.They are used in the treatment of coughs, pulmonary affections and malaria. The root juice is used internally in Nepal to treat indigestion and externally to treat boils.

Locations: Scrub and wood margins. Marshy places and lake sides, mainly on limestone soils.

Avalanche Lily
(Erythronium grandiflorum)

Medicinal Use: The pulverized root was applied to boils and as a wet dressing on skin sores.

Other Uses: Bulb - raw or cooked. The bulbs are usually harvested in the spring as the first leaves appear above ground, they can be stored for some months in a cool place. The raw bulb has a slightly bitter milky taste, the texture is cool and moist inside and so the North Americans liked eating them on hot days. The cooked bulb has a more starchy texture and a sweet flavour. Stored bulbs develop a sweeter flavour when cooked than fresh bulbs. Large quantities can have an emetic effect. The bulbs can also be dried for later use. Leaves - raw or cooked. Eating the leaves will greatly reduce the vigour of the bulb, so can only be recommended in times of emergency. Young seedpods - raw or cooked.

Locations: Sagebrush, open woodland and grassy mountain slopes, sometimes to the tree line. Rich moist soil along the banks of streams, shaded woods and subalpine meadows, often in large patches.

Big Sagebrush
(Artemisia tridentata)

Medicinal Use: Sagebrush was widely employed by many native North American tribes who used it to treat a wide range of disorders. It is little used in modern herbalism, though it certainly merits further investigation. The plant is antirheumatic, antiseptic, digestive, disinfectant, febrifuge, ophthalmic, poultice and sedative. A decoction of the leaves is used in the treatment of digestive disorders and sore throats. An infusion of the fresh or dried leaves is used to treat pneumonia, bad colds with coughing and bronchitis. It is used both internally and externally in the treatment of rheumatism. The crushed plant is used as a liniment on cuts, sores etc whilst a decoction of the leaves is used as an antiseptic wash for cuts, wounds and sores. A poultice of the steeped leaves is applied to sore eyes. The plant is burnt in the house in order to disinfect it.

Locations: Dry plains and hills on calcareous soils. Found on slightly acid and on alkaline soils.

Bitterroot
(Lewisia rediviva)

Medicinal Use: The root is cardiac and galactogogue. An infusion of the root has been used to increase the milk flow in nursing mothers, to relieve heart pain and the pain of pleurisy and also as a blood purifier. The root has been eaten raw to counteract the effects of poison ivy rash and as a treatment for diabetes. The pounded dry root has been chewed in the treatment of sore throats. A poultice of the raw roots has been applied to sores.

Locations: Gravelly to heavy, usually dry soils. Rocky dry soils of valleys, or on foothills, stony slopes, ridges and mountain summits to about 2,500 metres.

Broadleaf Cattail
(Typha latifolia)

Medicinal Use: The leaves are diuretic. The leaves have been mixed with oil and used as a poultice on sores. The pollen is astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue, haemostatic, refrigerant, sedative, suppurative and vulnerary. The dried pollen is said to be anticoagulant, but when roasted with charcoal it becomes haemostatic. It is used internally in the treatment of kidney stones, haemorrhage, painful menstruation, abnormal uterine bleeding, postpartum pains, abscesses and cancer of the lymphatic system. It should not be prescribed for pregnant women. Externally, it is used in the treatment of tapeworms, diarrhoea and injuries. A decoction of the stems has been used in the treatment of whooping cough. The roots are diuretic, galactagogue, refrigerant and tonic. The roots are pounded into a jelly-like consistency and applied as a poultice to wounds, cuts, boils, sores, carbuncles, inflammations, burns and scalds. The flowers are used in the treatment of a wide range of ailments including abdominal pain, amenorrhoea, cystitis, dysuria, metrorrhagia. The young flower heads are eaten as a treatment for diarrhoea. The seed down has been used as a dressing on burns and scalds.

Other Uses: The stems and leaves have many uses. Gathered in the autumn they make a good thatch, can be used in making paper, can be woven into mats, chairs, hats etc. They are a good source of biomass. The pulp of the plant can be converted into rayon. The stems can be used to make rushlights. A fibre is obtained from the blossom stem and flowers. A fibre obtained from the leaves can be used for making paper. The leaves are harvested in summer, autumn or winter and are soaked in water for 24 hours prior to cooking. The fibres are cooked for 2 hours with soda ash and then beaten in a ball mill for 1 hour. They make green or brown paper. The hairs of the fruits are used for stuffing pillows etc. They have good insulating and buoyancy properties and have also been used as a wound dressing and a lining for babies' nappies. The flowering stems can be dried and used for insulation, they also have good buoyancy properties. The pollen is highly inflammable, it is used in making fireworks etc.

Locations: Shallow water up to 15cm deep in ponds, lakes, ditches, slow-flowing streams etc, succeeding in acid or alkaline conditions.

Broomweed
(Gutierrezia sarothrae)

Medicinal Use: Broomweed was widely employed medicinally by several native North American tribes who used it to treat a variety of complaints. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism. A decoction of the roots has been used in the treatment of painful urination, diarrhoea and stomach aches. The roots have been placed in boiling water and the steam inhaled in the treatment of respiratory complaints. The flowers are laxative. A decoction of the fresh flowers has been used in the treatment of diarrhoea. The leaves are cathartic, febrifuge and sedative. An infusion has been used in the treatment of coughs and colds. It has also been used as a bath to treat fevers and sores, including those caused by venereal diseases. A poultice of the moistened leaves has been used to treat bruises, wounds, sprains, nose bleeds and insect stings. A protein in the plant is reported to have anti-cancer activity. A strong, black infusion of the plant has been used as a rub on rheumatic joints.

Locations: Dry soils of open areas, plains, valleys and foothills. Open or disturbed sites in Texas, often on calcareous soils.

Notes: In large quantities this plant can be toxic to grazing animals, possibly due to the presence of saponins.

Columbine
(Aquilegia flavescens)

Medicinal Use: Antispasmodic, diaphoretic, parasiticide, resolvent, salve.

Locations: Moist mountain meadows to alpine slopes.

Notes: Although no records of toxicity have been seen for this species, it belongs to a family that contains a number of mildly toxic species. It is therefore wise to exercise some caution. The flowers are probably perfectly safe to eat.

Common Bracken
(Pteridium aquilinum)

Medicinal Use: The young shoots are diuretic, refrigerant and vermifuge. They have been eaten as a treatment for cancer. The leaves have been used in a steam bath as a treatment for arthritis. A decoction of the plant has been used in the treatment of tuberculosis. A poultice of the pounded fronds and leaves has been used to treat sores of any type and also to bind broken bones in place. The root is antiemetic, antiseptic, appetizer and tonic. A tincture of the root in wine is used in the treatment of rheumatism. A tea made from the roots is used in the treatment of stomach cramps, chest pains, internal bleeding, diarrhoea, colds and also to expel worms. The poulticed root is applied to sores, burns and caked breasts.

Locations: Heath, woodland and grassland. A common and highly invasive weed of acid soils, it is rarely found on limestone or wet peats.

Notes: There are a number of reports regarding the possible health risks of this plant. The huge quantity of spores released by large areas of bracken are suggested to be implicated in stomach cancers. A recent study suggests that this is not such a problem in Britain as was once believed, the spores are not produced in such high quantities nor do they travel so far due to our normally humid atmosphere. The leaves and roots contain substances that deprive the body of vitamin B1 if they are eaten raw, though they are possibly alright cooked. The leaves are also said to be carcinogenic.

Common Purslane
(Portulaca oleracea)

Medicinal Use: The plant is antibacterial, antiscorbutic, depurative, diuretic and febrifuge. The leaves are a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, which is thought to be important in preventing heart attacks and strengthening the immune system. Seed sources such as walnuts, however, are much richer sources. The fresh juice is used in the treatment of strangury, coughs, sores etc. The leaves are poulticed and applied to burns, both they and the plant juice are particularly effective in the treatment of skin diseases and insect stings. A tea made from the leaves is used in the treatment of stomach aches and headaches. The leaf juice is applied to earaches, it is also said to alleviate caterpillar stings. The leaves can be harvested at any time before the plant flowers, they are used fresh or dried. This remedy is not given to pregnant women or to patients with digestive problems. The seeds are tonic and vermifuge. They are prescribed for dyspepsia and opacities of the cornea.

Locations: Fields, waste ground, roadside verges, cultivated ground and by the sea.

Common Selfheal
(Prunella vulgaris)

Medicinal Use: Self heal has a long history of folk use, especially in the treatment of wounds, ulcers, sores etc. It was also taken internally as a tea in the treatment of fevers, diarrhoea, sore mouth, internal bleeding etc. In Korea it is used to treat oedema, nephritis, scrofula and goitre. The whole plant is alterative, antibacterial, antipyretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, diuretic, febrifuge, hypotensive, stomachic, styptic, tonic, vermifuge and vulnerary. It has an antibacterial action, inhibiting the growth of Pseudomonas, Bacillus typhi, E. coli, Mycobacterium tuberculi etc. It can be used fresh or dried, for drying it is best harvested in mid-summer. The plant is experimentally antibiotic and hypotensive.

Locations: Waste ground, grassland, woodland edges etc, usually on basic and neutral soils.

Common Toadflax
(Linaria vulgaris)

Medicinal Use: Yellow toadflax has a long history of herbal use. It acts mainly on the liver and was once widely employed as a diuretic in the treatment of oedema. It is little used now, but undoubtedly merits investigation. The whole plant is antiphlogistic, astringent, cathartic, detergent, depurative, diuretic, hepatic, ophthalmic and purgative. It is gathered when just coming into flower and can be used fresh or dried. The plant is especially valued for its strongly laxative and diuretic activities. It is employed internally in the treatment of oedema, jaundice, liver diseases, gall bladder complaints and skin problems. Externally it is applied to haemorrhoids, skin eruptions, sores and malignant ulcers. The plant should be used with caution. It should preferably only be prescribed by a qualified practitioner and should not be given to pregnant women. Dosage is critical, the plant might be slightly toxic. The fresh plant, or an ointment made from the flowers, is applied to piles, skin eruptions etc. The juice of the plant, or the distilled water, is a good remedy for inflamed eyes and cleaning ulcerous sores. A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant. It is used in the treatment of diarrhoea and cystitis.

Locations: Hedgerows, by ditches, on dry banks and roadside verges. It is especially abundant in sandy and gravelly soils, and in chalk and limestone districts, and avoids acid soils.
Notes: One report suggests that the plant might be slightly toxic.

Common Water-Crowsfoot
(Ranunculus aquatilis capillaceus)

Medicinal Use: The subspecies R. aquatilis capillaceus is used in India in the treatment of intermittent fevers, rheumatism and asthma.

Locations: Ponds, ditches and streams.

Notes: All parts of the plant are poisonous when fresh, the toxins are destroyed by heat or by drying. The plant also has a strongly acrid juice that can cause blistering to the skin.

Common Yarrow
(Achillea millefolium)

Medicinal Use: Yarrow has a high reputation and is widely employed in herbal medicine, administered both internally and externally. It is used in the treatment of a very wide range of disorders but is particularly valuable for treating wounds, stopping the flow of blood, treating colds, fevers, kidney diseases, menstrual pain etc. The whole plant is used, both fresh and dried, and is best harvested when in flower. Some caution should be exercised in the use of this herb since large or frequent doses taken over a long period may be potentially harmful, causing allergic rashes and making the skin more sensitive to sunlight. The herb combines well with Sambucus nigra flowers (Elder) and Mentha x piperita vulgaris (Peppermint) for treating colds and influenza. The herb is antiseptic, antispasmodic, mildly aromatic, astringent, carminative, cholagogue, diaphoretic, digestive, emmenagogue, odontalgic, stimulant, bitter tonic, vasodilator and vulnerary. It also contains the anti-inflammatory agent azulene, though the content of this varies even between plants in the same habitat. The herb is harvested in the summer when in flower and can be dried for later use. The fresh leaf can be applied directly to an aching tooth in order to relieve the pain.

Locations: Meadows, pastures, lawns etc. on all but the poorest soils.

Notes: Extended use of this plant, either medicinally or in the diet, can cause allergic skin rashes or lead to photosensitivity in some people.

Coralroots
(Genus Corallorhiza)

Medicinal Use: (C. maculata) An infusion of the plant has been used as a lotion in the treatment of ringworm and skin diseases. An infusion of the dried, whole plant bits has been used in the treatment of colds. A decoction of the stalks has been used to "build up the blood" of people suffering from pneumonia.
(C. Odontorhiza) The root is diaphoretic, febrifuge and sedative. It is one of the most certain, quick and powerful diaphoretics, but it is a scarce plant and therefore a very expensive medicine to obtain.

Locations: (C. maculata) On leaf mold in woods.
(C. Odontorhiza) Rich woods, parasitic on the roots of trees. Dry woodland.

Cow Parsnip
(Heracleum sphondylium)

Medicinal Use: The roots and the leaves are aphrodisiac, digestive, mildly expectorant and sedative. The plant is little used in modern herbalism but has been employed in the treatment of laryngitis and bronchitis. A tincture made from the aerial parts of the plant has also been used to relieve general debility, though it is uncertain how it works. The plant is harvested as it comes into flower and can be dried for later use.

Locations: Moist grassland and ditches, by hedges and in woods.

Notes: Many members of this genus, including many of the sub-species in this species, contain furanocoumarins. These have carcinogenic, mutagenic and phototoxic properties.

Creeping Mahonia
(Berberis repens)

Medicinal Use: The root and root bark is alterative, anaphrodisiac, antiseptic, cholagogue, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, laxative and tonic. It improves the digestion and absorption and is taken internally in the treatment of coughs, fevers, psoriasis, syphilis, haemorrhages, stomach complaints, kidney problems and impure blood conditions. Externally, it is used as an antiseptic and healing wash or poultice on wounds and rheumatic joints. The roots are harvested in late autumn or early spring and dried for later use. A poultice of the fresh berries has been applied to boils. Berberine, universally present in rhizomes of Mahonia species, has marked antibacterial effects and is used as a bitter tonic. Since it is not appreciably absorbed by the body, it is used orally in the treatment of various enteric infections, especially bacterial dysentery. It should not be used with Glycyrrhiza species (Liquorice) because this nullifies the effects of the berberine. Berberine has also shown antitumor activity. The root and root bark are best harvested in the autumn.

Other Uses: Fruit - raw or cooked. An acid flavour but it is rather nice raw, especially when added to muesli or porridge. Unfortunately, there is relatively little flesh and a lot of seeds. Used for making jams. jellies etc. They can also be made into a refreshing lemonade-like beverage. When sugar is added, the fruit juice is similar to grape juice. The fruit is about 9mm in diameter.

Locations: Hills and slopes, often in partial shade, usually on dry slopes.

Douglas Fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii)

Medicinal Use: Douglas fir was often employed medicinally by various native North American tribes who used it to treat a variety of complaints. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism. An antiseptic resin is obtained from the trunk. It is used as a poultice to treat cuts, burns, wounds and other skin ailments. The poultice is also used to treat injured or dislocated bones. The resin is used in the treatment of coughs and can be chewed as a treatment for sore throats. An infusion of the green bark has been used in the treatment of excessive menstruation, bleeding bowels and stomach problems. An infusion of the leaves has been used as a wash and a sweat bath for rheumatic and paralyzed joints. An infusion of the young sprouts has been used in the treatment of colds. An infusion of the twigs or shoots has been used in the treatment of kidney and bladder problems. A decoction of the buds has been used in the treatment of venereal disease. Young shoots have been placed in the tips of shoes to keep the feet from perspiring and to prevent athlete's foot. A mouthwash is made by soaking the shoots in cold water.

Other Uses: Young shoot tips - used as a flavouring in cooked foods. A subtle woodsy flavour. A refreshing tea is made from the young leaves and twigs. Rich in vitamin C. It is used as a coffee substitute according to some reports. The fresh leaves have a pleasant balsamic odour and are used as a coffee substitute. Inner bark - dried, ground into a meal and mixed with cereals for making bread etc. A famine food used when all else fails. A sweet manna-like substance is exuded from the bark. This report possibly refers to the resin that is obtained from the trunk, and is used as a chewing gum by various native North American tribes. Alternatively, the report could be referring to the sap which is used as a sugar-like food.

Locations: Moist to very dry areas from sea level to near the tree-line in the Rocky mountains. The best specimens are found on well-drained deep loamy soils with plenty of moisture.

Dwarf Birch
(Betula nana)

Medicinal Use: The bark is antirheumatic, astringent, lithontripic, salve and sedative. Moxa is prepared from the plant and is regarded as an effective remedy in all painful diseases. No more details are given, but it is likely that the moxa is prepared from yellow fungous excretions of the wood, since the same report gives this description when talking about other members of the genus. A compound decoction of the leaves has been used in the treatment of stomach ache and intestinal discomfort.

Locations: Mountain moors, 240 - 840 metres

False Spikenard
(Maianthemum racemosum)

Medicinal Use: False spikenard was widely employed by several native North American tribes who used it to treat a variety of complaints. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism. The plant is contraceptive and hemostatic. A decoction is used in the treatment of coughs and the spitting up of blood. Half a cup of leaf tea drunk daily for a week by a woman is said to prevent conception. a poultice of the crushed fresh leaves is applied to bleeding cuts. A tea made from the roots is drunk to regulate menstrual disorders. The root is analgesic, antirheumatic, appetizer, blood purifier, cathartic and tonic. A decoction is said to be a very strong medicine, it is used for treating rheumatism and kidney problems and, when taken several times a day it has been used successfully in treating cancer and heart complaints. The fumes from a burning root have been inhaled to treat headaches and general body pain. The fumes have also been used to restore an unconscious patient and to bring an insane person back to normal. The dried powdered root has been used in treating wounds. A poultice of the root has been applied to the severed umbilical cord of a child in order to speed the healing process and is also used to treat cuts, swellings etc. A cold infusion of the root is used as a wash for sore eyes.

Locations: Moist coniferous and deciduous woods, clearings and bluffs, preferring shaded streamsides.

Field Chickweed
(Cerastium arvense)

Medicinal Use: The plant is astringent. A decoction of the plant has been used in the treatment of injuries. A decoction is said to stop uterine bleeding and prevent the child from passing.

Locations: Dry banks and waysides, and in grassland, especially on calcareous or slightly acid sandy soils, throughout Britain but mainly in the east.

Fireweed
(Epilobium angustifolium)
Medicinal Use: Willow herb is often used as a domestic herbal remedy, though it is little used in conventional herbalism. The herb is antispasmodic, astringent, demulcent, emollient, hypnotic, laxative and tonic. It is used in the treatment of diarrhoea, mucous colitis and irritable bowel syndrome. A poultice of the leaves is applied to mouth ulcers. An extract of the leaves has anti-inflammatory activity. An ointment made from the leaves has been used to soothe skin problems in children. A tea made from the leaves and roots is a folk remedy for dysentery and abdominal cramps. A poultice made from the peeled roots is applied to burns, skin sores, swellings, boils etc.

Other Uses: A fibre obtained from the outer stems is used to make cordage. The "cottony" seed hairs are used as a stuffing material or as a tinder. The powdered inner cortex is applied to the hands and face to give protection from the cold. Leaves and young shoot tips - raw or cooked. They can be used in salads or cooked as a vegetable. When boiled they make a wholesome vegetable and are a good source of vitamins A and C. Only use the leaves when they are young. Although they are said to be edible, another report says that an infusion of them can stupefy. Young shoots - cooked. They make a good asparagus substitute. Root - raw, cooked or dried and ground into a powder. Used in spring, it has a sweet taste. Flower stalks - raw or cooked. Added to salads, they are used when the flowers are in bud. The pith of young or older stems - raw or cooked. Slightly sweet, tender and pleasing to eat, though there is not much of it. Gelatinous, it can be used as a flavouring in soups. The stems are said to be a good laxative, but are best not eaten on an empty stomach. Tea is made from dried leaves, it is sweet and pleasant. Called "kaporie" tea in Russia, it contains 10% tannin. The leaves are also used as an adulterant of China tea.

Locations: Rocky ground, waste areas, woodland edges and gardens.

Notes: An infusion of the leaves is said to stupefy a person.

Forget-Me-Nots
(Genus Myotosis)

Medicinal Use: (M. alpestris) The whole plant is astringent and ophthalmic. Used as a lotion, it is an excellent remedy for many eye diseases. It is also ground into a powder and applied externally to wounds, at one time the leaf juice was used to stop nose bleeds. The plant is harvested in May and can be dried for later use.
(M. scorpioides) Used in the treatment of whooping cough and bronchitis.

Locations: (M. alpestris) Growing in damp woodlands and meadows, usually on basic rock formations. (M. scorpioides) Wet places by streams and ponds.

Fringed Sagebrush
(Artemisia frigida)

Medicinal Use: The leaves are stomachic, vermifuge and used in the treatment of women's complaints. The plant contains camphor, which is stimulant and antispasmodic. An infusion of the leaves is used in the treatment of biliousness, indigestion, coughs and colds whilst the leaves are chewed and the juice swallowed to treat heartburn. A poultice of the chewed leaves is used as a poultice to reduce swellings and the leaves are also placed in the nose to stop nosebleeds. A hot poultice of the leaves has been used to treat toothache. The leaves can be used as a sanitary towel to help reduce skin irritation. They are also drunk as a tea when the woman is menstruating or to treat irregular menstruation. The dried leaves are burnt in a room as a disinfectant. A decoction of the root is used as a stimulant and tonic.

Locations: Dry prairies, plains and rocks to 3300 metres in N. America.

Giant Hyssop
(Agastache urticifolia)

Medicinal Use: The leaves are analgesic and antirheumatic. A decoction is taken internally in the treatment of rheumatism, measles, stomach pains and colds. Externally, a poultice of the mashed leaves is applied to swellings.

Locations: Moist soils of open hillsides, canyons and mountain valleys, from the foothills to about 2,500 metres.

Goldenrods
(Genus Solidago)

Medicinal Use: Goldenrod is a safe and gentle remedy for a number of disorders. In particular, it is a valuable astringent remedy treating wounds and bleeding, whilst it is particularly useful in the treatment of urinary tract disorders, being used both for serious ailments such as nephritis and for more common problems such as cystitis. The plant contains saponins that are antifungal and act specifically against the Candida fungus which is the cause of oral thrush. It also contains rutin which is used to treat capillary fragility, and phenolic glycosides which are anti-inflammatory. The leaves and flowering tops are anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, aromatic, astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, mildly diuretic, febrifuge and stimulant. A good vulnerary herb, it has also proved of value when used internally in the treatment of urinary infections, chronic catarrh, skin diseases, influenza, whooping cough, bladder and kidney stones etc. Due to its mild action, goldenrod is used to treat gastro-enteritis in children. It makes an excellent mouthwash in the treatment of thrush. The plant is gathered in the summer and dried for later use. The seed is anticoagulant, astringent and carminative. A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant. It is used in the treatment of kidney and bladder disorders, rheumatism and arthritis.

Locations: Dry woods, grassland, rocks, cliffs, hedge banks, dunes etc on acid or calcareous soils.

Grouseberry
(Vaccinium scoparium)

Medicinal Use: Antiseptic, astringent, carminative, hypoglycaemic. An infusion of the dried, pulverized leaves has been used in the treatment of nausea and to increase the appetite. The dried and powdered fruits have been given to children to improve their appetite.

Locations: Usually found at high elevations.

Hairspine Pricklypear
(Opuntia polyacantha)

Medicinal Use: The stems are astringent and diuretic. An infusion is used in the treatment of diarrhoea. A poultice of the flesh has been used to treat skin sores, infections, wounds and back aches.

Locations: Dry prairies, sand hills and rocks.

Notes: The plant has numerous minutely barbed glochids (hairs) that are easily dislodged when the plant is touched and they then become stuck to the skin where they are difficult to see and remove. They can cause considerable discomfort.

Hairy Clematis
(Clematis hirsutissima)

Medicinal Use: A decoction of the leaves has been used to treat headaches. The root has been used in the treatment of congested nose pain.

Other Uses: The seed floss can be used as an insulation.

Locations: Moist open areas of plains, hills and woods, up to 2,500 metres.

Notes: Although no reports of toxicity have been seen for this species, some if not all members of this genus are mildly poisonous. The toxic principle is dissipated by heat or by drying.

Harebell
(Campanula rotundifolia)

Medicinal Use: The root has been chewed in the treatment of heart and lung problems. An infusion of the roots has been used as ear drops for a sore ear. A decoction of the plant has been drunk or used as a wash in the treatment of sore eyes.

Locations: Dry grassy places and on fixed dunes, often in poor shallow soils.

Jack Pine
(Pinus banksiana)

Medicinal Use: The turpentine obtained from the resin of all pine trees is antiseptic, diuretic, rubefacient and vermifuge. It is a valuable remedy used internally in the treatment of kidney and bladder complaints and is used both internally and as a rub and steam bath in the treatment of rheumatic affections. It is also very beneficial to the respiratory system and so is useful in treating diseases of the mucous membranes and respiratory complaints such as coughs, colds, influenza and TB. Externally it is a very beneficial treatment for a variety of skin complaints, wounds, sores, burns, boils etc and is used in the form of liniment plasters, poultices, herbal steam baths and inhalers. A poultice of the inner bark has been used in the treatment of deep cuts. The leaves have been used in a herbal steam bath to clear congested lungs. They have also been used as a fumigant to revive a comatose patient.

Locations: Barren sandy or rocky soils, sometimes forming extensive forests.

Juniper
(Juniperus communis)

Medicinal Use: Juniper fruits are commonly used in herbal medicine, as a household remedy, and also in some commercial preparations. They are especially useful in the treatment of digestive disorders plus kidney and bladder problems. The fully ripe fruits are strongly antiseptic, aromatic, carminative, diaphoretic, strongly diuretic, rubefacient, stomachic and tonic. They are used in the treatment of cystitis, digestive problems, chronic arthritis, gout and rheumatic conditions. They can be eaten raw or used in a tea, but some caution is advised since large doses can irritate the urinary passage. Externally, it is applied as a diluted essential oil, having a slightly warming effect upon the skin and is thought to promote the removal of waste products from underlying tissues. It is, therefore, helpful when applied to arthritic joints etc. The fruits should not be used internally by pregnant women since this can harm the pregnancy. The fruits also increase menstrual bleeding so should not be used by women with heavy periods. When made into an ointment, they are applied to exposed wounds and prevent irritation by flies. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. Its keyword is "Toxin elimination".

Locations: Chalk-downs only where there is least sunshine and most rain, heaths, moors, pine and birch woods. Often dominant on chalk, limestone and slate.

Notes: Although the fruit of this plant is quite often used medicinally and as a flavouring in various foods and drinks, large doses of the fruit can cause renal damage. Juniper should not be used internally in any quantities by pregnant women.

Large-Leaved Lupine
(Lupinus polyphyllus)

Medicinal Use: A decoction of the plant has been used as a tonic.

Locations: Usually found in wetlands from sea level to 3000 metres.


Notes: The seed of many lupine species contain bitter-tasting toxic alkaloids, though there are often sweet varieties within that species that are completely wholesome. Taste is a very clear indicator. These toxic alkaloids can be leached out of the seed by soaking it overnight and discarding the soak water. It may also be necessary to change the water once during cooking. Fungal toxins also readily invade the crushed seed and can cause chronic illness.

Limber Pine
(Pinus flexilis)

Medicinal Use: The turpentine obtained from the resin of all pine trees is antiseptic, diuretic, rubefacient and vermifuge. It is a valuable remedy used internally in the treatment of kidney and bladder complaints and is used both internally and as a rub and steam bath in the treatment of rheumatic affections. It is also very beneficial to the respiratory system and so is useful in treating diseases of the mucous membranes and respiratory complaints such as coughs, colds, influenza and TB. Externally it is a very beneficial treatment for a variety of skin complaints, wounds, sores, burns, boils etc and is used in the form of liniment plasters, poultices, herbal steam baths and inhalers.

Locations: Often forming open forests in the subalpine to alpine zones, often in semi-arid areas. Usually found on dry rocky ridges and peaks.

Lodgepole Pine
(Pinus contorta)

Medicinal Uses: Lodgepole pine was widely employed medicinally by several native North American tribes who used it especially for its antiseptic and healing properties on wounds, infections etc, and also for its beneficial effects upon the chest and lungs. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism. The turpentine obtained from the resin of all pine trees is antiseptic, diuretic, rubefacient, vermifuge and vulnerary. It is a valuable remedy when taken internally in the treatment of kidney and bladder complaints and can be used both internally and externally in the treatment of rheumatic affections. It is also used in treating diseases of the mucous membranes and respiratory complaints. Externally it is used in the form of liniment plasters and poultices in treating a range of skin complaints, wounds, boils etc. A decoction of the young shoots has been used in the treatment of stomach pains. The young buds have been chewed in the treatment of a sore throat. The inner bark has been eaten as a blood purifier, diuretic and cathartic. A decoction has been used as a tonic and in the treatment of coughs, colds, consumption and gonorrhoea.

Other Uses: Inner bark - raw or cooked. It can be used fresh or dried. It is mashed into a pulp and made into cakes then baked. Harvested in early spring, the taste is not unpleasant, but it develops a strong taste of turpentine as the season advances. The inner bark is ready to harvest when the male cones are producing pollen. A famine food, it is only used when all else fails. Sap - collected in spring and used as a drink. Seed - raw or cooked. A gum is made from the pitch obtained from the trunk. It is allowed to harden and used for chewing. A vanillin flavouring is obtained as a by-product of other resins that are released from the pulpwood.

Location: Coastal dunes and sphagnum covered bogs to montane dry or moist areas. Trees growing inland are much larger than those growing near the coast.

Low Prairie Rose
(Rosa arkansana)

Medicinal Use: The root is hemostatic, stimulant and tonic. A compound decoction of the root has been used in the treatment of bleeding wounds, fits and convulsions. The root has been used in the treatment of eye complaints. The fruit of many members of this genus is a very rich source of vitamins and minerals, especially in vitamins A, C and E, flavanoids and other bioactive compounds. It is also a fairly good source of essential fatty acids, which is fairly unusual for a fruit. It is being investigated as a food that is capable of reducing the incidence of cancer and also as a means of halting or reversing the growth of cancers.

Locations: Rocky slopes, thickets and dry prairies.

Notes: There is a layer of hairs around the seeds just beneath the flesh of the fruit. These hairs can cause irritation to the mouth and digestive tract if ingested.

Monument Plant
(Frasera speciosa)

Medicinal Use: The whole plant is febrifuge, pectoral, laxative and tonic. An infusion of the dried, powdered leaves, or the root, has been used in the treatment of diarrhoea. A cooled decoction of the roots has been used in the treatment of asthma, colds, digestive complaints etc. An infusion of the plant has been used as a contraceptive. Caution is advised in the use of this plant, see the notes above on toxicity.

Locations: Dryish or dampish places. Rich soils in open pine woods, aspen groves etc, 1500 - 3000 metres.

Notes: When used medicinally, large doses of the powdered root have proved fatal.

Moss Campion
(Silene acaulis)

Medicinal Use: The plant has been used in the treatment of children with colic.

Locations: Mountain ledges and scree

Notes: Although no mention of toxicity has been seen for this species, it does contain saponins. Although toxic, these substances are very poorly absorbed by the body and so tend to pass through without causing harm. They are also broken down by thorough cooking. Saponins are found in many plants, including several that are often used for food, such as certain beans. It is advisable not to eat large quantities of food that contain saponins. Saponins are much more toxic to some creatures, such as fish, and hunting tribes have traditionally put large quantities of them in streams, lakes etc in order to stupefy or kill the fish.

Mountain Bluebells
(Mertensia ciliata)

Medicinal Use: The plant is galactogogue. An infusion has been used to increase the milk flow of nursing mothers. An infusion of the powdered root has been used to relieve the itching caused by smallpox and measles.

Locations: Streambanks, wet meadows, damp thickets and wet cliffs from the foothills to high elevations in the mountains.

Mountain Huckleberry
(Vaccinium membranaceum)

Medicinal Use: Antiseptic, astringent, carminative, hypoglycaemic. An infusion of the roots and stems has been used in the treatment of heart troubles, arthritis and rheumatism.

Other Uses: Fruit - raw or cooked. A sweet but rather acid flavour. Sour but delicious according to other reports. A reasonable source of vitamin C. This fruit is amongst the largest and best flavoured of all the wild blueberries. The native North Americans would often dry the fruit for use in the winter.


Fall
Spring/Summer


Locations: Thickets and woodland edges. Moist woods.

Mountain Spruce
(Picea engelmannii)

Medicinal Use: An infusion of the bark has been used in the treatment of respiratory complaints, TB etc. A decoction of the leaves and gum has been used in the treatment of cancer. It was said that if this treatment did not work then nothing would work. The decoction was also used in the treatment of coughs. The ashes of the twigs, mixed with oil, have been used as an ointment or salve on damaged skin. The pitch obtained from the trunk has been used in the treatment of eczema.

Locations: Montane regions to the tree-line, especially by swamps. Often found on poor thin rocky soils, though the best specimens are growing in deep well-drained clay-loam soils.

Mule’s Ears
(Wyethia amplexicaulis)

Medicinal Use: The roots furnish a remedy applied externally as a poultice to bruised and swollen limbs.

Locations: Open, not too dry hillsides and dry meadows in the foothills.

Narrow-Leaf Cottonwood
(Populus angustifolia)

Medicinal Uses: A tea made from the inner bark is used in the treatment of scurvy. The bark contains salicin, a glycoside that probably decomposes into salicylic acid in the body. The bark is therefore anodyne, anti-inflammatory and febrifuge. It is used especially in treating rheumatism and fevers, and also to relieve the pain of cramps. The woolly fruit is moistened and applied to the gums in order to treat infections. A tea made from the fruits is used in the treatment of toothache.

Locations: Prefers well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil. Found alongside Lamar River.

Nodding Onion
(Allium cernuum)

Medicinal Use: The whole plant has mild medicinal activity similar to the action of garlic (Allium sativum). It is used specifically as a poultice on the chest for the treatment of respiratory ailments and the juice has been used in the treatment of kidney stones. The juice of the plant is used in treating colds, croup, sore throats etc. A poultice of the plant is applied externally to various infections such as sore throats, sores, swellings, chest and pleurisy pains.

Locations: Ledges, gravels, rocky or wooded slopes and crests ascending to high altitudes.

Notes: Although no individual reports regarding this species have been seen, there have been cases of poisoning caused by the consumption, in large quantities and by some mammals, of certain members of this genus. Dogs seem to be particularly susceptible.

Northern Bedstraw
(Galium boreale)

Medicinal Use: The plant is diaphoretic and diuretic. A decoction has been used as a contraceptive. A number of species in this genus contain asperuloside, a substance that produces coumarin and gives the scent of new-mown hay as the plant dries. Asperuloside can be converted into prostaglandins (hormone-like compounds that stimulate the uterus and affect blood vessels), making the genus of great interest to the pharmaceutical industry.

Locations: Rocky slopes and streamsides, moraine, scree, shingle, stable dunes etc, to 1050 metres.

Pale Agoseris
(Agoseris glauca)

Medicinal Use: The following reports refer to the sub-species A. glauca dasycephala. An infusion of the entire plant is used as a wash for sores and rashes. The milky latex is applied to warts in order to remove them. This requires constant applications over a period of weeks for it to be effective. A poultice made from the latex is applied to sores. An infusion of the root is used as a laxative.

Locations: Meadows and other open places at all elevations in moderately dry to moist or even wet soils.

Pearly Everlasting
(Anaphalis margaritacea)

Medicinal Use: Pearly everlasting was often employed medicinally by native North American tribes who used it in the treatment of a range of ailments. It is little used in modern herbalism. The whole plant is anodyne, antiseptic, astringent, expectorant and sedative. Used internally, it is a good remedy for diarrhoea, dysentery and pulmonary affections. A poultice of the flowers or the whole plant is applied to burns, sores, ulcers, bruises, swellings and rheumatic joints. An infusion of the plant is steamed and inhaled in the treatment of headaches. A cooled infusion of the roots and shoots has been used as a laxative and emetic to treat "poison stomach".

Locations: Moist meadows, by rivers, on wall tops and in sandy and waste places.

Perennial Flax
(Linum lewisii)

Medicinal Use: The plant is antirheumatic, carminative and stomachic. The oil in the seed has soothing and lubricating properties, and is used in medicines to soothe tonsillitis, sore throats, coughs, colds, constipation, gravel and stones. When mixed with an equal quantity of lime water it is used to treat burns and scalds. A poultice of the fresh crushed leaves has been used to treat eye problems. A tincture of the entire plant is used in the treatment of diarrhoea. The fresh herb is boiled and taken internally for the treatment of rheumatic pains, heartburn, colds, coughs and dropsy. A poultice of the plant is applied to bruises to reduce the swelling. The seeds are emollient. An eye medicine is made from them. An infusion of the roots is used as an eyewash.

Locations: Calcareous grassland. Prairies to alpine ridges, usually on dry well-drained soils in Western N. America.

Notes: The raw seed contains cyanide and should not be eaten raw. The cooked seed is perfectly safe.

Prairie Smoke
(Geum triflorum)

Medicinal Use: A strong decoction of the roots is used as a tonic in the treatment of severe coughs and fevers. This decoction can also be used as an eyewash and as a mouthwash for sore throats. An infusion of the roots, mixed with oil, can be applied as a salve to sores, rashes, blisters and flesh wounds. An infusion can also be used as a wash for aching joints, stiff sore muscles etc.


Locations: Damp places and mountain screes.

Purple Fritillary
(Fritillaria atropurpurea)

Medicinal Use: The plant has been pulverized into a salve and applied to scrofulous swellings.

Locations: Rich damp soils in valleys and open woods, also in mountains to near the timberline.

Quack Grass
(Elymus repens)

Medicinal Use: Couch grass is of considerable value as a herbal medicine, the roots being very useful in the treatment of a wide range of kidney, liver and urinary disorders. They have a gentle remedial effect which is well-tolerated by the body and has no side-effects. This plant is also a favourite medicine of domestic cats and dogs, who will often eat quite large quantities of the leaves. The roots are antiphlogistic, aperient, demulcent, diuretic, emollient, lithontripic and tonic. They are harvested in the spring and can be dried for later use. A tea made from the roots is used in cases of urinary incompetence and as a worm expellent. It is also an effective treatment for urinary tract infections such as cystitis and urethritis. It both protects the urinary tubules against infections and irritants, and increases the volume of urine thereby diluting it. Externally it is applied as a wash to swollen limbs.

Locations: A common weed of gardens, fields, hedgerows and meadows.

Red Baneberry
(Actaea rubra)

Medicinal Use: The whole plant, but especially the root, is analgesic, antirheumatic, galactagogue and rubefacient. The plant was often used medicinally by North American tribes, though modern users should be aware of the plant's potential toxicity. A tea made from the root is used as an appetizer, in the treatment of stomach pains, coughs, colds, menstrual irregularities, postpartum pains, to increase milk flow and as a purgative after childbirth. Great caution should be employed if using this plant internally, the rootstock is a violent purgative, irritant and emetic.

Locations: Moist shady areas, mostly in deciduous forests but also in mixed coniferous forests, open pine or spruce woodlands, swales, stream banks and swamps from sea level to 3500 metres.

Notes: All parts of the plant are toxic, apparently acting upon the heart.

Rocky Mountain Juniper
(Juniperus scopulorum)

Medicinal Use: Rocky Mountain juniper was widely employed medicinally by many native North American tribes who used it in particular to treat problems connected with the chest and kidneys. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism. A tea made from the terminal shoots has been used in the treatment of VD by some N. American tribes. The treatment has to be taken over a long period of time. The fruits are appetizer, diuretic and stomachic. An infusion has been used in the treatment of stomach, kidney and bladder problems. An infusion of the twigs has been used in the treatment of fevers, pneumonia, coughs and colds. A poultice of the mashed and dampened branches has been applied to skin sores. The leaves are diaphoretic, disinfectant, febrifuge, hemostatic, laxative, sedative and tonic. A decoction has been used in the treatment of internal bleeding, constipation and constant coughing. The leaves have been boiled, then mixed with turpentine and used as an external treatment on rheumatic joints. The leaves have been rubbed into the hair in order to treat dandruff.

Locations: Scattered singly on dry rocky ridges, foothills and bluffs in montane areas or in dry habitats of the coastal forest region. The best specimens are found on slightly alkaline soils.

Rocky Mountain Maple
(Acer glabrum)

Medicinal Use: A decoction of the wood and bark is said to cure nausea. Another report says that this is specifically the nausea caused by smelling a carcass. An infusion of the bark has been used as a cathartic. A decoction of the branches, together with the branches of Amelanchier sp., was used to heal a woman after childbirth and also to promote milk production.
Other Uses: The leaves are packed around apples, rootcrops etc to help preserve them. A fibre obtained from the inner bark is used for making mats, rope etc. The bark has been used to make spoons, paint containers etc. Wood - tough, hard, heavy, close grained, pliable.

Locations: Edges of mountain streams, on rocks and in coniferous woods, 1500 - 2000 metres.

Rubber Rabbitbrush
(Ericameria nauseosa)

Medicinal Use: A decoction of the twigs has been used in the treatment of toothaches, coughs and chest pains. An infusion of the flowering stems has been used in the treatment of colds and TB. An infusion of the leaves and stems has been used to treat colds, diarrhoea, stomach cramps etc. It has also been used externally as a wash for sores and skin eruptions, especially smallpox. The plant shows slight bactericidal activity. In small doses, the extracts lowered the blood pressure briefly in rabbits. In large doses, the fall in blood pressure was pronounced, accompanied by circulatory and respiratory failure.
Other Uses: A gum obtained from the root is used for chewing.

Locations: Dry sandy, gravelly, or heavy clayey and alkali soils in open places in sagebrush, juniper-pinyon and ponderosa-pine zones at low elevations and occasionally found at higher elevations.

Saskatoon Serviceberry
(Aronia alnifolia)

Medicinal Use: Saskatoon was quite widely employed as a medicinal herb by the North Americans, who used it to treat a wide range of minor complaints. It is little used in modern herbalism. An infusion of the inner bark is used as a treatment for snow-blindness. A decoction of the fruit juice is mildly laxative. It has been used in the treatment of upset stomachs, to restore the appetite in children, it is also applied externally as ear and eye drops. A decoction of the roots has been used in the treatment of colds. It has also been used as a treatment for too frequent menstruation. A decoction of the stems, combined with the stems of snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp) is diaphoretic. It has been used to induce sweating in the treatment of fevers, flu etc and also in the treatment of chest pains and lung infections. A decoction of the plant, together with bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata) has been used as a contraceptive. Other recipes involving this plant have also been used as contraceptives including a decoction of the ashes of the plant combined with the ashes of pine branches or buds. A strong decoction of the bark was taken immediately after childbirth to hasten the dropping of the placenta. It was said to help clean out and help heal the woman's insides and also to stop her menstrual periods after the birth, thus acting as a form of birth control.

Locations: Thickets, woodland edges and banks of streams in moist well-drained soils. Small bushy forms grow on fairly dry hillsides.

Scarlet Gilia
(Ipomopsis aggregata)

Medicinal Use: The whole plant is cathartic and emetic. The leaves are steeped in hot water until the water turns a bright green, this liquid is taken in small doses as a tonic for the blood. An infusion of the whole plant has been used to treat blood diseases. A decoction has been used as a disinfectant wash on itchy skin. A poultice of the whole plant has been applied to rheumatic joints. An infusion of the roots is used as a laxative and in the treatment of high fevers, colds.

Locations: Dry rocky slopes in sagebrush, scrub and clearings in pine forests to 3000 metres.

Scrambled Eggs
(Corydalis aurea)

Medicinal Use: A tea made from the plant is used in the treatment of painful or irregular menstruation, diarrhoea, bronchitis, heart diseases, sore throats and stomach aches. Externally, it is used as a lotion on backaches, hand sores etc and as a gargle for sore throats. Caution is advised in the use of this plant, see the note below on toxicity.

Locations: Sandy rocky soils, open woods.

Notes: Corydalis species are potentially toxic in moderate doses.

Shadescale Saltbush
(Atriplex confertifolia)

Medicinal Use: The plant has been burnt and the smoke inhaled as a treatment for epilepsy. The boiled leaves have been used as a liniment for sore muscles and aches. A poultice of the mashed leaves have been applied to the chest and a decoction of the leaves drunk to treat colds.

Locations: Alkaline slopes and flats below 2000 metres.

Notes: No member of this genus contains any toxins, all have more or less edible leaves. However, if grown with artificial fertilizers, they may concentrate harmful amounts of nitrates in their leaves.

Shrubby Cinquefoil
(Dasiphora fruticosa)

Medicinal Use: The leaves are astringent. The juice of the root is used in the treatment of indigestion.

Locations: Damp rocky ground, usually on limestone.

Sidebells Wintergreen
(Orthilia secunda)

Medicinal Use: A strong decoction of the root has been used as an eye wash.

Locations: Damp coniferous woods and on damp rock ledges.

Silverberry
(Elaeagnus argentea)

Medicinal Use: A strong decoction of the bark, mixed with oil, has been used as a salve for children with frostbite. A decoction of the roots, combined with sumac roots (Rhus spp.), has been used in the treatment of syphilis. This medicine was considered to be very poisonous and, if you survived it, you were likely to become sterile. The fruit of many members of this genus is a very rich source of vitamins and minerals, especially in vitamins A, C and E, flavanoids and other bioactive compounds. It is also a fairly good source of essential fatty acids, which is fairly unusual for a fruit. It is being investigated as a food that is capable of reducing the incidence of cancer and also as a means of halting or reversing the growth of cancers.

Locations: Dry calcareous slopes

Small Camas
(Camassia quamash)

Medicinal Use: A decoction of the roots has been used to induce labour. An infusion of the leaves has been used to treat bleeding after birth and to help expel the placenta.

Locations: Coastal mountain forests and wet meadows inland. Marshy meadows in coniferous forest, to 2300 metres.

Snowberry
(Symphoricarpos albus laevigatus)

Medicinal Use: Snowberry was commonly employed medicinally by several native North Americans who valued it especially for the saponins it contains. These saponins can be toxic, but when applied externally they have a gentle cleansing and healing effect upon the skin, killing body parasites and helping in the healing of wounds. The native Americans used it to treat a variety of complaints but especially as an external wash on the skin. The plant is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism. Any internal use of this plant should be carried out with care, and preferably under the supervision of a qualified practitioner. See the notes above on toxicity. The whole plant is disinfectant, diuretic, febrifuge and laxative. An infusion of the stems has been drunk to treat stomach problems and menstrual disorders. A decoction of the leaves has been used in the treatment of colds. A poultice of the chewed leaves has been applied, or an infusion of the leaves has been used as a wash, in the treatment of external injuries. A weak solution of the stems and leaves has been used as a wash for children whilst a stronger solution is applied to sores. The fruit has been eaten, or used as an infusion, in the treatment of diarrhoea. An infusion of the fruit has been used as an eye wash for sore eyes.The berries have been rubbed on the skin as a treatment for burns, rashes, itches and sores. The berries have also been rubbed on warts in order to get rid of them - this treatment needs to be carried out at least three times a day for a period of a few weeks. A poultice of the crushed leaves, fruit and bark has been used in the treatment of burns, sores, cuts, chapped and injured skin. An infusion of the roots has been used in the treatment of fevers (including childhood fevers), stomach aches and colds. A decoction of the root bark has been used in the treatment of venereal disease and to restore the flow of urine. An infusion of the root has been used as an eyewash for sore eyes. An infusion of the whole plant has been drunk and also applied externally in the treatment of skin rashes. A decoction of the roots and stems has been used in the treatment of the inability to urinate, venereal disease, tuberculosis and the fevers associated with teething sickness.

Spring/Summer
Fall


Locations: Banks and flats in canyons and near streams below 1200 metres

Spearleaf Stonecrop
(Sedum lanceolatum)

Medicinal Use: The plant is laxative. An infusion of the stems, leaves and flowers has been taken to clean out the womb after childbirth.

Locations: Open exposed places, usually on rocks or on gravelly or rocky soil from sea-level to the subalpine zone.

Notes: Although not poisonous, if large quantities of this plant are eaten it can cause a stomach upset.

Spreading Dogbane
(Apocynum androsaemifolium)

Medicinal Use: Spreading dogbane is an unpleasantly bitter stimulant irritant herb that acts on the heart, respiratory and urinary systems, and also on the uterus. It was widely employed by the native North Americans who used it to treat a wide variety of complaints including headaches, convulsions, earache, heart palpitations, colds, insanity and dizziness. It should be used with great caution, and only under the supervision of a qualified practitioner if taking this plant internally. The root contains cymarin, a cardioactive glycoside that is toxic to ruminants. The root is cardiotonic, cathartic, diaphoretic, diuretic, emetic and expectorant. It has a powerful action in slowing the pulse and also has a very strong action on the vaso-motor system, it is rather an irritant to the mucous membranes though, so some people cannot tolerate it. The juice of the fresh root has been used in the treatment of syphilis. The sap of the plant has been applied externally to get rid of warts. The roots were boiled in water and the water drunk once a week in order to prevent conception. The green fruits were boiled and the decoction used in the treatment of heart and kidney problems and for the treatment of dropsy. This preparation can irritate the intestines and cause unpleasant side-effects.

Other Uses: The bark yields a good quality fibre that is used for making twine, bags, linen etc. It is inferior to A. cannabinum. The fibre is finer and stronger than cotton. It can be harvested after the leaves fall in the autumn but is probably at its best as the seed pods are forming. The plant yields a latex, which is a possible source of rubber. It is obtained by making incisions on the stem and resembles indiarubber when dry.

Locations: Open woodland, woodland edges etc, usually on drier soils.

Notes: All parts of the plant are poisonous.

Sticky Geranium
(Geranium viscosissimum)



Medicinal Use: The whole plant is astringent, salve and styptic. An infusion of the leaves, plus a sweat bath with the leaves, is used as a treatment for colds. It is used as a gargle in the treatment of sore throats. An infusion of the leaves or the roots is used as a wash for sore eyes. A poultice of the leaves or roots has been applied to cuts, sores etc.

Locations: Open woods and meadows. Plentiful in medium-dry to moist or even wet soils of open woods, roadsides, creek banks and meadows to an altitude of 2,700 metres.

Stork’s-Bill
(Erodium cicutarium)

Medicinal Use: The whole plant is astringent and haemostatic. It has been used in the treatment of uterine and other bleeding. The roots and leaves have been eaten by nursing mothers to increase the flow of milk. Externally, the plant has been used as a wash on animal bites, skin infections etc. A poultice of the chewed root has been applied to sores and rashes. A tea made from the leaves is diaphoretic and diuretic. An infusion has been used in the treatment of typhoid fever. The leaves are soaked in bath water for the treatment of rheumatism. The seeds contain vitamin K, a poultice of them is applied to gouty typhus.

Locations: Sandy dunes, grassland, arable land, waste areas, roadsides, railway embankments etc, usually near the sea.

Subalpine Fir
(Abies lasiocarpa)

Medicinal Use: Antiseptic. The gummy exudate that appears on the bark was soaked in water until soft and then applied to wounds. An infusion of the resin has been used as an emetic to cleanse the insides. The resin has also been chewed to treat bad breath. A decoction of the bark is used as a tonic and in the treatment of colds and flu. A poultice of the leaves has been used to treat chest colds and fevers. An infusion has been taken to treat the coughing up of blood, which can be the first sign of TB, and as a laxative.

Locations: Often found in poor and rocky soils, it is rarely seen below 600 metres. It grows in forests right up to the timber line where it is no more than a shrub on exposed slopes at high altitudes.

Swamp Currant
(Ribes lacustre)

Medicinal Use: The leaves or the bark can be chewed and then placed on sores caused by the prickles of this plant. A decoction of the bark has been used as a wash for sore eyes. The decoction has also been taken by women during labour to ease the birth. A decoction of the root can be taken several times a day as a treatment for constipation. A decoction of the twigs has been taken in the treatment of general body aches. A decoction of dried branches has been used in the treatment of stomach complaints, diarrhoea and colds.

Locations: Cold damp woods. Swamps and wet woods.

Notes: Skin contact with the spines can cause an allergic reaction in some people.

Trembling Aspen
(Populus tremuloides)

Medicinal Use: American aspen has a long history of herbal use. It was widely employed medicinally by many native North American tribes who valued it especially for its antiseptic and analgesic qualities, using it in the treatment of wounds, skin complaints and respiratory disorders. It is used for the same purposes in modern herbalism. The stem bark is anodyne, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, nervine and stimulant. The bark contains salicylates, from which the proprietary medicine aspirin is derived. It is used internally in the treatment of rheumatism, arthritis, gout, lower back pains, urinary complaints, digestive and liver disorders, debility, anorexia, also to reduce fevers and relieve the pain of menstrual cramps. Externally, the bark is used to treat chilblains, haemorrhoids, infected wounds and sprains. The bark is harvested from side branches or coppiced trees and dried for later use. An infusion of the inner bark is considered to be a remedy for coughs and an appetite stimulant, it is also used in the treatment of stomach pains, urinary ailments, VD, worms, colds and fevers. The root is poulticed and applied to cuts and wounds. A tea from the root bark is used as a treatment for excessive menstrual bleeding. The leaf buds are used as a salve for colds, coughs, and irritated nostrils.

Other Uses: Inner bark - raw or cooked. It can be dried, ground into a powder and used as a flour. This is normally mixed with other flours for making bread etc and can also be used as a thickener in soups. It is best used in the spring. Sap - can be tapped and used as a drink. It has also been used as a flavouring with wild strawberries. Catkins - raw or cooked. Bitter.

Locations: A pioneer species of old fields, logged or burnt land, it is found in a range of soils from shallow, rocky or clay soils to rich sandy ones. It grows best in rich porous soils with plenty of lime.

Twinberry Honeysuckle
(Lonicera involucrata)

Medicinal Use: Twinberry was employed medicinally by a number of native North American tribes who used it to treat a range of complaints. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism. The bark is disinfectant, galactagogue, ophthalmic and pectoral. A decoction is used in the treatment of coughs and as an eyewash. A decoction of the bark has been applied to a woman's breasts to encourage milk flow. The bark has also been used as a dressing on burns. The leaves are antipruritic and ophthalmic. A poultice of the chewed leaves is applied to venereal sores, itchy skin and boils. A decoction of the leaves is used as an eye wash. The fruits are anti-dandruff, emetic, laxative and pectoral. An infusion is used to treat chest and stomach complaints and to cleanse the body. The mashed fruit has been rubbed into the scalp as a treatment for dandruff.

Locations: Calcareous woods, banks of streams and swamps and in open coniferous forests, usually on limestone.

Utah Honeysuckle
(Lonicera utahensis)

Medicinal Use: The branches are mildly laxative. An infusion of the branches and leaves has been used as a wash on sores and infections.

Locations: Moist wooded or open slopes at moderate to rather high elevations in the mountains.

Western Blue Flag
(Iris missouriensis)

Medicinal Use: Rocky Mountain iris was employed medicinally by several native North American tribes who used it to treat various complaints, but especially as an external application for skin problems. It was for a time an official American medicinal plant, but is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism. The root is emetic and odontalgic. An infusion has been used in the treatment of kidney and bladder complaints, stomach aches etc. The pulped root is placed in the tooth cavity or on the gum in order to bring relief from toothache. A decoction of the root has been used as ear drops to treat earaches. A poultice of the mashed roots has been applied to rheumatic joints and also used as a salve on venereal sores. Caution is advised in the use of this plant, see the notes above on toxicity. A paste of the ripe seeds has been used as a dressing on burns.

Locations: Meadows and streamsides. Also found in pinewoods. Often found in apparently dry situations, but always where moisture is abundant until flowering time.

Notes: Many plants in this genus are thought to be poisonous if ingested, so caution is advised. An arrow poison was made from the ground-up roots. Plants can cause skin irritations and allergies in some people.

Western Yellow Pond-Lily
(Nuphar polysepala)

Medicinal Use: The root is analgesic and anti-hemorrhagic. A decoction is taken in the treatment of pain in any part of the body, and for lung haemorrhages, TB etc. A poultice made from the root is used in the treatment of any pain, rheumatic joints, sores etc.

Locations: Ponds, shallow lakes and slow-flowing rivers, from valleys to almost 3,000 metres in the mountains.

Western Stoneseed
(Lithospermum ruderale)

Medicinal Use: An infusion or decoction of the root has been used as a diuretic in the treatment of kidney complaints and also to treat internal haemorrhaging, diarrhoea etc. A poultice of the dried powdered leaves and stems has been used to relieve the pain of rheumatic joints. Some N. American women drank a cold water infusion of the roots daily for six months to ensure permanent sterility. Alcoholic extracts of the plant have been shown to eliminate the oestrus cycle and decrease the weight of the thymus and pituitary glands.

Locations: Open, fairly dry places from the foothills to moderate elevations.

Western Tansymustard
(Descurainia pinnata)

Medicinal Use: Diuretic, expectorant, poultice. The ground up seeds have been used in the treatment of stomach complaints. A poultice of the plant has been used to ease the pain of toothache. An infusion of the leaves has been used as a wash on sores.

Locations: Most areas and situations, usually in dry soils.

Notes: The plant is said to be toxic to livestock, causing symptoms similar to selenium poisoning. Known as blind staggers or paralyzed tongue, the animals can become blind, wander aimlessly and lose the ability to swallow.

Whitebark Pine
(Pinus albicaulis)

Medicinal Use: The turpentine obtained from the resin of all pine trees is antiseptic, diuretic, rubefacient and vermifuge. It is a valuable remedy used internally in the treatment of kidney and bladder complaints and is used both internally and as a rub and steam bath in the treatment of rheumatic affections. It is also very beneficial to the respiratory system and so is useful in treating diseases of the mucous membranes and respiratory complaints such as coughs, colds, influenza and TB. Externally it is a very beneficial treatment for a variety of skin complaints, wounds, sores, burns, boils etc and is used in the form of liniment plasters, poultices, herbal steam baths and inhalers.

Locations: Often found on rocky ridges and bluffs, it is reduced to a prostrate gnarled mat at the highest elevations and exposures, but the best specimens are found at lower elevations in sheltered canyons

White Bog-Orchid
(Platanthera dilatata)

Medicinal Use: The root juice has been mixed with water and drunk in the treatment of gravel.

Locations: Wet soils of swamps, bogs, banks of springs and streams.

Notes: The leaves are said to be poisonous.

Beak Willow
(Salix bebbiana)

Medicinal Uses: A poultice of the chewed root inner bark has been applied to a deep cut. A poultice of the damp inner bark has been applied to the skin over a broken bone. A poultice of the bark and sap has been applied as a wad to bleeding wounds. The fresh bark of all members of this genus contains salicin, which probably decomposes into salicylic acid (closely related to aspirin) in the human body. This is used as an anodyne and febrifuge.

Locations: Moist rich soils along streams, lakes and swamps, but also forming dense thickets in open meadows. Found at elevations up to 3000 metres.

Woods’ Rose
(Rosa woodsii)

Medicinal Use: The seeds have been used as a poultice to produce a drawing effect for treating muscular pains. An infusion of the leaves has been used as a spring tonic. A poultice of the chewed leaves has been used to allay the pain of bee stings. The leaves have been placed in the shoes as a protection from athletes' feet. The roots are blood tonic and diuretic. A decoction of the roots has been used by adults and children in the treatment of diarrhoea and intestinal influenza. A decoction of the root or inner bark has been used in the treatment of colds. An infusion of the fruits has been used in the treatment of coughs. Various parts of the plant have been used to make poultices to apply to burns, sores, cuts, swellings and wounds. A decoction of the branches, combined with chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) and red willow (Salix bonplandiana), has been used in the treatment of various women's complaints, diarrhoea and vomiting. The fruit of many members of this genus is a very rich source of vitamins and minerals, especially in vitamins A, C and E, flavanoids and other bioactive compounds. It is also a fairly good source of essential fatty acids, which is fairly unusual for a fruit. It is being investigated as a food that is capable of reducing the incidence of cancer and also as a means of halting or reversing the growth of cancers.

Locations: Moist soils of draws, hillsides, along streams and in open valleys. It often forms thickets in open positions.

Notes: There is a layer of hairs around the seeds just beneath the flesh of the fruit. These hairs can cause irritation to the mouth and digestive tract if ingested.

Yellow Rabbitbrush
(Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus)

Medicinal Use: A poultice made from the chewed plant tips has been applied to boils and rheumatic joints. An infusion of the leaves has been used to treat colds. The finely mashed leaves have been inserted in tooth cavities to treat toothache.

Locations: Dry open places in lowlands and up to moderate elevations.

Yellow Sweetclover
(Melilotus officinalis)

Medicinal Use: Melilot (Yellow Sweetclover) used either externally or internally, can help treat varicose veins and haemorrhoids though it requires a long-term treatment for the effect to be realised. Use of the plant also helps to reduce the risk of phlebitis and thrombosis. Melilot contains coumarins and, as the plant dries or spoils, these become converted to dicoumarol, a powerful anticoagulant. Thus the plant should be used with some caution, it should not be prescribed to patients with a history of poor blood clotting or who are taking warfarin medication. See also the notes above on toxicity. The flowering plant is antispasmodic, aromatic, carminative, diuretic, emollient, mildly expectorant, mildly sedative and vulnerary. An infusion is used in the treatment of sleeplessness, nervous tension, neuralgia, palpitations, varicose veins, painful congestive menstruation, in the prevention of thrombosis, flatulence and intestinal disorders. Externally, it is used to treat eye inflammations, rheumatic pains, swollen joints, severe bruising, boils and erysipelas, whilst a decoction is added to the bath-water. The flowering plant is harvested in the summer and can be dried for later use. A distilled water obtained from the flowering tops is an effective treatment for conjunctivitis.

Locations: Grassy fields and roadsides, avoiding acid soils.

Notes: The dried leaves can be toxic. though the fresh leaves are quite safe to use. This is possibly due to the presence of coumarin, the substance that gives some dried plants the smell of new mown hay, if taken internally it can prevent the blood clotting

While some plants have medicinal benefits as well as toxic properties, these plants offer no benefit. They are extremely toxic and can easily be mistaken as other neighbouring plants within the Yellowstone location.

Use caution as to not mistake these toxic plants for any similar plants.

Water Hemlock
(Cicuta maculata)

Effects: Causes respiratory failure within minutes.

Locations: wet meadows and pastures and along the banks of streams.

Notes: Easily mistaken for cow parsnip, this plant is identifiable by its purple streaking along the stems and lack of hairs or follicles on the stem itself. Their flowers will be much smaller than a cow parsnip.

This is the most common and most mistaken poisonous plant in Yellowstone. Caution is advised to avoid mistakes between other species within the Cicuta genus.

Columbian Monkshood
(Aconitum columbianum)

Effects: The chemical "aconite" can be obtained from the root of this plant. It is used as a heart and nerve sedative.

Locations: Moist woods to sub-alpine meadows, mostly along streams.

Notes: This is a very poisonous plant and should only be used with extreme caution and under the supervision of a qualified practitioner. The whole plant is highly toxic - simple skin contact has caused numbness in some people. The roots and seeds are the most toxic and also the leaves just before the plant flowers.

Larkspurs
(Genus Delphinium)

Effects: Causes intense intestinal upset. For external use, they are used as an insecticide.

Locations: Subalpine to alpine meadows and streambanks. Meadows, wet thickets, bogs, streamsides and open coniferous woods from sea level to 3200 metres.

Notes: All parts of this plant are extremely toxic and should not be used.

They can be confused with similar looking purple, tall-growing plants, a common look-alike being that of the Lupinus genus. Make sure to always check the flowers for open-petal flowers in looser rows.