Pinus halepensis - Euforgen

EUFORGEN 

Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use 

Aleppo and Brutia pines 

Pinus halepensis/Pinus brutia 

Bruno Fady1 , Hacer Semerci2 and Giovanni G. Vendramin3 1 INRA, Mediterranean Forest Research Unit, Avignon, France 

2 Forest Tree Seeds and Tree Breeding Research Directorate, Gazi- 

Ankara, Turkey 

3 CNR, Institute of Plant Genetics, Firenze, Italy 

These Technical Guidelines are intended to assist those who cherish the valuable Aleppo pine 

and Brutia pine genepools and wish to ensure their sustainability, through conserving important 

seed sources or use in practical forestry. The focus is on conserving the genetic diversity of the 

species at the European scale. The recommendations provided in this module should be 

regarded as a commonly agreed basis to be complemented and further developed in local, 

national or regional conditions. The Guidelines are based on the available knowledge of the 

species and on widely accepted methods for the conservation of forest genetic resources. 

Biology and ecology 

Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis 

Mill.) has a pedunculate cone, 

and fine, flexible, light green needles 

5–10 cm long. Brutia pine 

(Pinus brutia Ten.) has a sessile 

cone and strong, dark green 

needles 10–18 cm long. Both 

species are wind-pollinated and 

allogamous. Male and female 

flowers are located on different 

parts of a tree (monoecy). Both 

species are extremely prolific 

seed dispersers and can colonize 

open and disturbed 

areas easily. 

Aleppo and 

Brutia pine 

forests can grow 

on all substrates and 

almost all bioclimates 

of the Mediterranean 

region. They can be found 

at altitudes of 0–600 m in the 

northern Mediterranean and 

0–1400 m in the southern 

Mediterranean (thermo- and 

meso-Mediterranean levels). 

Locally, they can reach higher 

altitudes, e.g. 2600 m for

inus halepensis P 

ppo and Brutia pinesPinus halepensis Pinus brutiaAleppo and Brutia pinesPinus halepensis 

P. halepensis in the Higher Atlas 

of Morocco and 1650 m for 

P. brutia in the Taurus Mountains 

of Turkey. At the upper limit of 

their distribution, they often constitute 

a pre-forest colonizing 

stage or are part of a mixed pineoak 

forest. 

Optimal development of 

P. halepensis forests occurs at 

annual rainfalls of 350–700 mm 

and absolute mean minimum 

temperatures between –2 and 

+10°C (semi-arid and sub-humid 

bioclimates). Optimal development 

of P. brutia forests requires 

higher rainfalls but accepts a 

wider range of temperatures 

(absolute mean minimum temperatures 

between –5 and +10°C, 

sub-humid and humid bioclimates). 

Distribution Importance and use 

Pinus halepensis and P. brutia 

form a group of related species 

that can intercross, but occupy 

different geographical ranges 

and bioclimates. 

Aleppo pine forests cover 

extensive areas in the western 

Mediterranean: Spain, France, 

Italy, Croatia, Albania, Greece, 

Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya 

and Malta. A few natural and artificial 

populations can be found in 

the eastern Mediterranean in 

Turkey, Syria, Israel, Jordan and 

Lebanon. Total forest cover is 

estimated to be approximately 

3.5 million hectares. 

Brutia pine forests cover 

extensive areas in the Eastern 

Mediterranean: Greece, Turkey, 

Cyprus, Syria and Lebanon. A 

few small populations can be 

found in Iraq and Iran. 

Other related taxonomic 

groups are 

present in Ukraine 

(Crimea, P. stankewiczii 

Sukaczew), around the 

Black Sea (Georgia, Russian 

Federation, Ukraine, P. pithyusa 

Stevenson) and in the Caucasus 

(Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, 

Turkey, P. eldarica Medw.). Total 

forest cover is estimated to be 

over 4 million hectares, of which 

3.8 million hectares are in Turkey. 

Aleppo and Brutia pines represent 

the only or main source of 

wood and forest cover in many 

Mediterranean countries. Economically, 

P. brutia is the most 

important conifer species in 

Turkey; P. halepensis is the most 

important forest species of North 

Africa, and has high ecological 

importance in southern France 

and Italy, especially at the urbanforest 

interface. Mean productivity 

is approximately 1–2 m 3 

ha -1 year -1 for Aleppo pine, and 

2–3 m 3 ha -1 year -1 for Brutia pine. 

Maximum yield can reach 

12–15 m 3 for both species. The 

wood of these Mediterranean 

pines is used for many purposes: 

construction, industry, carpentry, 

firewood and pulp. Seeds are 

also used for making pastry.

inus brutia Pinus 

Pinus brutiaAleppo and Brutia pinesPinus halepensis Pinus brutiaAleppo and Brutia pinesP 

Genetic knowledge 

Genetic inventories using biochemical 

and DNA markers have 

demonstrated that genetic diversity 

is geographically structured. 

Most P. halepensis diversity was 

found in Greek and Spanish populations 

although other populations 

had lower diversity than 

other conifer species. This is 

consistent with the hypothesis of 

a recent expansion of the 

species (in the last 10 000 years) 

from these two refugial areas, 

with colonizing populations 

establishing by migration of a 

limited number of individuals 

(founder effect) and/or population 

dynamics regulated by fire 

(population bottlenecks). Genetic 

diversity is higher for P. brutia 

and roughly separates 

Western and Eastern populations. 

Controlled pollination 

experiments and monitoring 

of sympatric east Mediterranean 

populations using 

molecular markers have 

demonstrated that unidirectional 

gene flow is possible from 

P. halepensis to P. brutia resulting 

in the emergence of hybrids. 

Hybridization is not possible 

using P. brutia as pollen parent. 

Provenance and laboratory 

tests have revealed significant 

geographic patterns in adaptive 

trait variability. Although both 

species demonstrate polycyclic 

annual growth patterns, initial 

shoot units are smaller in 

P. halepensis. The easternmost 

P. halepensis provenances tend 

to have higher juvenile growth. 

Pinus halepensis is better adapted 

to drought but less adapted 

to cold than P. brutia. However, 

under severe water-stress conditions, 

P. halepensis has an 

increased sensitivity to the fungus 

Sphaeropsis sapinea. Both 

species are sensitive to the pine 

procecionnary moth Thaumetopoea 

pityocampa which can 

cause severe defoliation. Pinus 

halepensis is sensitive to the pine 

bast scale Matsucoccus josephii, 

although P. brutia is resistant to 

it. 

These, along with ecological 

studies, have been used to 

define seed-collection zones and 

seed stands in several countries 

(e.g. 29 P. halepensis 

seed stands 

in France). 

Threats to 

genetic diversity 

Aleppo and Brutia pines are not 

considered ecologically threatened 

as a whole. However P. 

pityusa is considered vulnerable 

because of population size 

reduction linked to habitat 

decline (IUCN red list). Pinus 

eldarica has a patchy distribution 

and its genetic diversity is lowest 

among the taxa of this group. 

Insects such as Matsucoccus 

josephii represent a major threat 

in the Eastern Mediterranean. 

Thaumatopea pityocampa can 

also induce severe defoliation 

throughout the distribution area 

of both pines although it does 

not often lead to mortality. 

Recently, the canker Crumenulopsis 

sororia has started to 

cause severe defoliation 

and dieback on 

P. halepensis in 

France. The impact of 

forest fires is ambivalent. 

Although they actually promote 

regeneration, they could be 

responsible for rare allele 

changes over generations, 

explain the very low diversity 

found in P. halepensis and promote 

the spreading of 

P. halepensis genes into P. brutia 

forests. Among-region seed 

transfers have led to significant 

frost or water-stress damage 

after planting when ill-adapted 

material was used. Reducing 

local population adaptability 

through gene flow from plantations 

is also a risk. Finally,

halepensis Pin 

Pinus halepensis Pinus brutiaAleppo and Brutia pinesPinus halepensis Pinus brutiaAleppo and 

because these species (and 

especially P. halepensis) are 

highly resistant to drought, they 

are often the last forest species 

to be found at desert or steppe 

margins. Global warming and its 

collateral modification of rainfall 

regimes may dramatically modify 

their distribution ranges. 

Guidelines for genetic 

conservation and use 

Current conservation measures 

undertaken at national levels 

most commonly include in situ 

gene conservation networks 

specifically designed for the target 

species (e.g. in Turkey, 52 

P. brutia conservation units) and 

forest reserves or national parks 

which include the target species. 

Ex situ measures include clonal 

archives, cold storage seed 

banks and DNA banks. 

To increase the efficiency 

of in situ genetic resource 

conservation, a concerted 

management effort should 

be carried out range-wide. 

Although transfer of seed 

material is often legally possible, 

it should be avoided 

across zones and countries 

with different ecological 

requirements, notably 

because of cold, drought and 

insect damage risks. 

Locally, some populations 

require specific attention and 

appropriate forestry practice. 

Marginal populations. As populations 

at high altitudes, in desert 

margins and mixed forests may 

contain valuable genes (resistance 

to drought, cold, pests) for 

adaptation under global warming, 

efforts such as gene 

reserves should be made 

to conserve them. 

Population under recurrent 

forest fires. Because they are 

adapted to forest fires, both 

pines usually regenerate well 

after fire, using the seed bank 

released from serotinous cones. 

If regeneration happens to be 

poor in the first 2 years after fire, 

and if only a few isolated seed 

trees remain in the burnt area, 

artificial regeneration should be 

used to counteract the risk of 

genetic erosion in the juveniles. 

In this case, seed lots collected 

from large genepools should be 

used (e.g. at least 30 trees per 

population from at least three 

populations from a single seed 

zone). 

Populations where hybridization 

may occur. Planting Aleppo 

pine where Brutia pine is present 

should be avoided in areas 

where frost and potential pest 

damage are limiting factors, or 

strictly monitored in areas where 

drought is the limiting factor. 

Owing to the anisotropy of 

between-species gene flow, the 

impact should be reduced when 

planting Brutia pine in the vicinity 

of Aleppo pine forests.

Pinus halepensis 

Aleppo and Brutia pinesPinus halepensis Pinus brutiaAleppo and Brutia pinesPinus h 

Distribution range of Aleppo pine 

Distribution range of Brutia pine

Pinus brutia Pi 

alepensis Pinus brutiaAleppo and Brutia pinesPinus halepensis Pinus brutiaAleppo and Bruti 

EUFORGEN 

These Technical Guidelines were 

produced by members of the 

EUFORGEN Conifers Network. 

The objective of the Network is to 

identify minimum genetic conservation 

requirements in the long 

term in Europe, in order to reduce 

the overall conservation cost and 

to improve the quality of standards 

in each country. 

Citation: Fady, B., H. Semerci and 

G.G. Vendramin. 2003. EUFOR- 

GEN Technical Guidelines for 

genetic conservation and use for 

Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) 

and Brutia pine (Pinus brutia). 

International Plant Genetic 

Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. 

6 pages. 

Drawings: Pinus halepensis, Claudio 

Giordano. © IPGRI, 2003. 

ISBN 92-9043-571-2 

EUFORGEN Secretariat c/o IPGRI 

Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a 

00057 Maccarese (Fiumicino) 

Rome, Italy 

Tel. (+39)066118251 

Fax: (+39)0661979661 

euf_secretariat@cgiar.org 

Selected bibliography 

Bariteau, M., R. Huc and G.G. Vendramin (coordinators). 2001 Adaptation and 

selection of Mediterranean Pinus and Cedrus for sustainable afforestation 

of marginal lands. Final report of EU Project FAIR CT95-0097, 173 p. 

Bucci, G., M. Anzidei, A. Madaghiele and G.G. Vendramin. 1998. Detection of 

haplotypic variation and natural hybridization in halepensis-complex pine 

species using chloroplast simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Molecular 

Ecology 7(12):1633-1643. 

Conkle, M.T., G. Schiller and C. Grunwald. 1988. Electrophoretic analysis of 

diversity and phylogeny of Pinus brutia and closely related taxa. Systematic 

Botany 13(3):411-424. 

Kaundun, S.S., B. Fady and Ph. Lebreton. 1997. Genetic differences between 

Pinus halepensis, Pinus brutia and Pinus eldarica based on needle 

flavonoids. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 25(6):553-562. 

Ne’eman, G. and L. Trabaud (eds.). 2000. Ecology, biogeography and management 

of Pinus halepensis and P. brutia forest ecosystems in the Mediterranean 

basin. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands. 407 pages. 

The distribution map was compiled by members of the EUFORGEN 

Conifers Network based on an earlier map published by W.B.Critchfield & 

E.L.Little, Jr. in 1966 (Geographic Distibution, of the Pines of the World, 

USDA Forest Service Misc. Publication, 991 pages). 

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